Q&A What

What is K in chemistry temperature

If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website.

If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked.

In order to continue enjoying our site, we ask that you confirm your identity as a human. Thank you very much for your cooperation.

An exothermic reaction occurs when the temperature of a system increases due to the evolution of heat. This heat is released into the surroundings, resulting in an overall negative quantity for the heat of reaction (\(q_{rxn} < 0\)). An endothermic reaction occurs when the temperature of an isolated system decreases while the surroundings of a non-isolated system gains heat. Endothermic reactions result in an overall positive heat of reaction (\(q_{rxn} > 0\)).

Exothermic and endothermic reactions cause energy level differences and therefore differences in enthalpy (\(ΔH\)), the sum of all potential and kinetic energies. ΔH is determined by the system, not the surrounding environment in a reaction. A system that releases heat to the surroundings, an exothermic reaction, has a negative ΔH by convention, because the enthalpy of the products is lower than the enthalpy of the reactants of the system.

\[ \ce{C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2 (g)} \tag{ΔH = –393.5 kJ} \]

\[\ce{ H2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) -> H2O(l)} \tag{ΔH = –285.8 kJ} \]

The enthalpies of these reactions are less than zero, and are therefore exothermic reactions. A system of reactants that absorbs heat from the surroundings in an endothermic reaction has a positive \(ΔH\), because the enthalpy of the products is higher than the enthalpy of the reactants of the system.

\[ \ce{N2(g) + O2(g) -> 2NO(g)} \tag{ΔH = +180.5 kJ > 0}\]

\[ \ce{ C(s) + 2S(s) -> CS2(l)} \tag{ΔH = +92.0 kJ > 0}\]

Because the enthalpies of these reactions are greater than zero, they are endothermic reactions.

The equilibrium constant (\(K_c\)) defines the relationship among the concentrations of chemical substances involved in a reaction at equilibrium. The Le Chatelier's principle states that if a stress, such as changing temperature, pressure, or concentration, is inflicted on an equilibrium reaction, the reaction will shift to restore the equilibrium. For exothermic and endothermic reactions, this added stress is a change in temperature. The equilibrium constant shows how far the reaction will progress at a specific temperature by determining the ratio of products to reactions using equilibrium concentrations.

The equilibrium expression for the following equation

\[aA + bB \rightleftharpoons cC + dD \]

is given below:

\[ K_c = \dfrac{[C]^c[D]^d}{[A]^a[B]^b} \label{Equation:Kc}\]

where

Kc is the equilibrium constant (for concentrations)
[A], [B], [C], [D] are concentrations
a, b, c, and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of the balanced equation

Exothermic Reactions Endothermic Reactions

If Kc decreases with an increase in temperature, the reaction shifts to the left.	If Kc increases with an increase in temperature, the reaction to shifts to the right.
If Kc increases with a decreases in temperature, the reaction to shifts to the right.	If Kc decreases with a decrease in temperature, the reaction to shifts to the left.

If the products dominate in a reaction, the value for K is greater than 1. The larger the K value, the more the reaction will tend toward the right and thus to completion.

If K=1, neither the reactants nor the products are favored. Note that this is not the same as both being favored.
If the reactants dominate in a reaction, then K< 1. The smaller the K value, the more the reaction will tend toward the left.

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\) : The Haber Process

Suppose that the following reaction is at equilibrium and that the concentration of N2 is 2 M, the concentration of H2 is 4 M, and the concentration of NH3 is 3 M. What is the value of Kc?

\[\ce{ N2 + 3H2 <=> 2NH3} \nonumber\]

The coefficients and the concentrations are plugged into the \(K_c\) expression (Equation \ref{Equation:Kc}) to calculate its value.

\[\begin{align*} K_c &= \dfrac{[NH_3]^2}{[N_2]^1[H_2]^3} \\[4pt] &= \dfrac{[3]^2}{[2]^1[4]^3} \\[4pt] &= \dfrac{9}{128} \\[4pt] &= 0.07 \end{align*}\]

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Determine \(K_c\) for the following chemical reaction at equilibrium if the molar concentrations of the molecules are:

0.20 M \(\ce{H2}\),
0.10 M \(\ce{NO}\),
0.20 M \(\ce{H2O}\), and
0.10M \(\ce{N2}\).

\[\ce{2H2 (g) + 2NO (g) <=> 2H2O (g) + N2 (g)} \nonumber\]

Answer

Using the \(K_c\) expression (Equation \ref{Equation:Kc}) and plugging in the concentration values of each molecule:

\[ \begin{align*} K_c &= \dfrac{[C]^c[D]^d}{[A]^a[B]^b} \\[4pt] &= \dfrac{[\ce{H2O}]^2[\ce{N2}]^1}{[\ce{H2}]^2[\ce{NO}]^2} \\[4pt] &= \dfrac{0.20^2\, 0.1}{0.20^2 \, 0.10 ^2 }\\[4pt] &= 10 \end{align*}\]

Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)

For the previous equation, does the equilibrium favor the products or the reactants?

Answer

Because \(K_c = 10 > 1\), the reaction favors the products.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)

In the following reaction, the temperature is increased and the \(K_ c\) value decreases from 0.75 to 0.55. Is this an exothermic or endothermic reaction?

\[\ce{N_2 (g) + 3H_2 <=>2NH_3 (g) } \nonumber\]

Answer

Because the K value decreases with an increase in temperature, the reaction is an exothermic reaction.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)

In the following reaction, in which direction will the equilibrium shift if there is an increase in temperature and the enthalpy of reaction is given such that \(ΔH\) is -92.5 kJ?

\[\ce{PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) <=> PCl_5(g)} \nonumber\]

Answer

In the initial reaction, the energy given off is negative and thus the reaction is exothermic. However, an increase in temperature allows the system to absorb energy and thus favor an endothermic reaction; the equilibrium will shift to the left.

Contributors and Attributions

Alyson Salmon, Nikita Patel (UCD), Deepak Nallur (UCD)

SI unit of temperature

This article is about the unit of temperature. For other uses, see Kelvin (disambiguation).

kelvin

Thermometer with markings in degrees Celsius and in kelvins

General informationUnit systemSIUnit oftemperatureSymbolKNamed afterWilliam Thomson, 1st Baron KelvinConversions x K in ...... corresponds to ... Celsius (x − 273.15) °C Fahrenheit (1.8 x − 459.67) °F Rankine 1.8 x °Ra

The kelvin, symbol K, is the primary unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI), used alongside its prefixed forms and the degree Celsius.[1][2][3][4] It is named after the Belfast-born and University of Glasgow based engineer and physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907). The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale, meaning it uses absolute zero as its null (zero) point.[2][5]

Historically, the Kelvin scale was developed by shifting the starting point of the much older Celsius scale down from the melting point of water to absolute zero, and its increments still closely approximate the historic definition of a degree Celsius, but since 2019 the scale has been defined by fixing the Boltzmann constant k to be exactly 1.380649×10−23 J⋅K−1.[1] Hence, one kelvin is equal to a change in the thermodynamic temperature T that results in a change of thermal energy kT by 1.380649×10−23 J. The temperature in degree Celsius is now defined as the temperature in kelvins minus 273.15,[2] meaning that a change or difference in temperature has the same value when expressed in degrees Celsius as in kelvins, and that 0 °C is equal to 273.15 K.

The kelvin is the primary unit of temperature for engineering and the physical sciences, while in most countries Celsius remains the dominant scale outside of these fields. In the United States, outside of the physical sciences the Fahrenheit scale predominates, with the kelvin or Rankine scale employed for absolute temperature. Those are defined using the kelvin[6][7].

The kelvin is never referred to nor written as a degree. The word kelvin is not capitalised, but is pluralised as appropriate. The unit symbol K is capitalized. For example, "It is 50 degrees Fahrenheit outside" vs "It is 10 degrees Celsius outside" vs "It is 283 kelvins outside".[8]

History

See also: Thermodynamic temperature § History

Precursors

An ice water bath offered a practical calibration point for thermometers in a time before the physical nature of heat was well understood.

During the 18th century, multiple temperature scales were developed,[9] notably Fahrenheit and centigrade (later Celsius). These scales predated much of the modern science of thermodynamics, including atomic theory and the kinetic theory of gases which underpin the concept of absolute zero. Instead, they chose defining points within the range of human experience that could be reproduced easily and with reasonable accuracy, but lacked any deep significance in thermal physics. In the case of the Celsius scale (and the long since defunct Newton scale and Réaumur scale) the melting point of water served as such a starting point, with Celsius being defined, from the 1740s up until the 1940s, by calibrating a thermometer such that:

The freezing point of water is 0 degrees.
The boiling point of water is 100 degrees.

This definition assumes pure water at a specific pressure chosen to approximate the natural air pressure at sea level. Thus an increment of 1 °C equals 1/100 of the temperature difference between the melting and boiling points. This temperature interval would go on to become the template for the kelvin.[citation needed]

Lord Kelvin

Lord Kelvin, the namesake of the unit of measure.

In 1848, William Thomson, who was later ennobled as Lord Kelvin, published a paper On an Absolute Thermometric Scale.[10][11][12] Using the soon-to-be-defunct caloric theory, he proposed an "absolute" scale based on the following parameters:

The melting point of water is 0 degrees.
The boiling point of water is 100 degrees.

"The arbitrary points which coincide on the two scales are 0° and 100°"

Any two heat engines whose heat source and heat sink are both separated by the same number of degrees will, per Carnot's theorem, be capable of producing the same amount of mechanical work per unit of "caloric" passing through.

"The characteristic property of the scale which I now propose is, that all degrees have the same value; that is, that a unit of heat descending from a body A at the temperature T° of this scale, to a body B at the temperature (T − 1)°, would give out the same mechanical effect, whatever be the number T. This may justly be termed an absolute scale, since its characteristic is quite independent of the physical properties of any specific substance."

As Carnot's theorem is understood in modern thermodynamics to simply describe the maximum efficiency with which thermal energy can be converted to mechanical energy and the predicted maximum efficiency is a function of the ratio between the absolute temperatures of the heat source and heat sink:

Efficiency ≤ 1 − absolute temperate of heat sink/absolute temperature of heat source

It follows that increments of equal numbers of degrees on this scale must always represent equal proportional increases in absolute temperature. The numerical value of an absolute temperature, T, on the 1848 scale is related to the absolute temperature of the melting point of water, Tmpw, and the absolute temperature of the boiling point of water, Tbpw, by:

T (1848 scale) = 100 (ln T/Tmpw) / (ln Tbpw/Tmpw)

On this scale, an increase of 222 degrees always means an approximate doubling of absolute temperature regardless of the starting temperature.

In a footnote Thomson calculated that "infinite cold" (absolute zero, which would have a numerical value of negative infinity on this scale) was equivalent to −273 °C using the air thermometers of the time. This value of "−273" was the negative reciprocal of 0.00366—the accepted coefficient of thermal expansion of an ideal gas per degree Celsius relative to the ice point, giving a remarkable consistency to the currently accepted value.[citation needed]

Within a decade, Thomson had abandoned caloric theory and superseded the 1848 scale with a new one[11][13] based on the 2 features that would characterise all future versions of the kelvin scale:

Absolute zero is the null point.
Increments have the same magnitude as they do in the Celsius scale.

In 1892 Thomson was awarded the noble title 1st Baron Kelvin of Largs, or more succinctly Lord Kelvin. This name was a reference to the River Kelvin which flows through the grounds of Glasgow University.

In the early decades of the 20th century, the Kelvin scale was often called the "absolute Celsius" scale, indicating Celsius degrees counted from absolute zero rather than the freezing point of water, and using the same symbol for regular Celsius degrees, °C.[14]

Triple point standard

A typical phase diagram. The solid green line applies to most substances; the dashed green line gives the anomalous behavior of water. The boiling line (solid blue) runs from the triple point to the critical point, beyond which further increases in temperature and pressure produce a supercritical fluid.

In 1873 William Thomson's older brother James coined the term triple point[15] to describe the combination of temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid, and gas phases of a substance were capable of coexisting in thermodynamic equilibrium. While any two phases could coexist along a range of temperature-pressure combinations (e.g. the boiling point of water can be affected quite dramatically by raising or lowering the pressure), the triple point condition for a given substance can occur only at 1 pressure and only at 1 temperature. By the 1940s, the triple point of water had been experimentally measured to be about 0.6% of standard atmospheric pressure and very close to 0.01 °C per the historical definition of Celsius then in use.

In 1948, the Celsius scale was recalibrated by assigning the triple point temperature of water the value of 0.01 °C exactly and allowing the melting point at standard atmospheric pressure to have an empirically determined value (and the actual melting point at ambient pressure to have a fluctuating value) close to 0 °C. This was justified on the grounds that the triple point was judged to give a more accurately reproducible reference temperature than the melting point.[16]

In 1954, with absolute zero having been experimentally determined to be about −273.15 °C per the definition of °C then in use, Resolution 3 of the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) introduced a new internationally standardised Kelvin scale which defined the triple point as exactly: 273.15 + 0.01 = 273.16 "degrees Kelvin"[17][18]

In 1967/1968, Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM renamed the unit increment of thermodynamic temperature "kelvin", symbol K, replacing "degree Kelvin", symbol °K.[8][19] The 13th CGPM also held in Resolution 4 that "The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is equal to the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water."[4][20][21]

After the 1983 redefinition of the metre, this left the kelvin, the second, and the kilogram as the only SI units not defined with reference to any other unit.

In 2005, noting that the triple point could be influenced by the isotopic ratio of the hydrogen and oxygen making up a water sample and that this was "now one of the major sources of the observed variability between different realizations of the water triple point", the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM), a committee of the CGPM, affirmed that for the purposes of delineating the temperature of the triple point of water, the definition of the kelvin would refer to water having the isotopic composition specified for Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.[4][22][23]

2019 redefinition

Main article: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

The kelvin is now fixed in terms of the Boltzmann constant and the joule, itself defined by the caesium-133 hyperfine transition frequency and the Planck constant. Both k and kB are accepted shorthand for the Boltzmann constant.

In 2005, the CIPM began a programme to redefine the kelvin (along with the other SI units) using a more experimentally rigorous method. In particular, the committee proposed redefining the kelvin such that the Boltzmann constant takes the exact value 1.3806505×10−23 J/K.[24] The committee had hoped that the program would be completed in time for its adoption by the CGPM at its 2011 meeting, but at the 2011 meeting the decision was postponed to the 2014 meeting when it would be considered as part of a larger program.[25]

The redefinition was further postponed in 2014, pending more accurate measurements of the Boltzmann constant in terms of the current definition,[26] but was finally adopted at the 26th CGPM in late 2018, with a value of k = 1.380649×10−23 J⋅K−1.[27][24][1][2][4][28]

For scientific purposes, the main advantage is that this allows measurements at very low and very high temperatures to be made more accurately, as the techniques used depend on the Boltzmann constant. It also has the philosophical advantage of being independent of any particular substance. The unit J/K is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅K−1, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of the Planck constant, the speed of light, and the duration of the caesium-133 ground-state hyperfine transition respectively.[2] Thus, this definition depends only on universal constants, and not on any physical artifacts as practiced previously. The challenge was to avoid degrading the accuracy of measurements close to the triple point. For practical purposes, the redefinition was unnoticed; water still freezes at 273.15 K (0 °C),[2][29] and the triple point of water continues to be a commonly used laboratory reference temperature.

The difference is that, before the redefinition, the triple point of water was exact and the Boltzmann constant had a measured value of 1.38064903(51)×10−23 J/K, with a relative standard uncertainty of 3.7×10−7.[30] Afterward, the Boltzmann constant is exact and the uncertainty is transferred to the triple point of water, which is now 273.1600(1) K.

The new definition officially came into force on 20 May 2019, the 144th anniversary of the Metre Convention.[28][1][2][4]

Practical uses

Colour temperature

Kelvin as a unit of noise temperature

Main article: Noise figure

For electronics, the kelvin is used as an indicator of how noisy a circuit is in relation to an ultimate noise floor, i.e. the noise temperature. The so-called Johnson–Nyquist noise of discrete resistors and capacitors is a type of thermal noise derived from the Boltzmann constant and can be used to determine the noise temperature of a circuit using the Friis formulas for noise.

Derived units and SI multiples

Main article: Orders of magnitude (temperature)

The only SI derived unit with a special name derived from the kelvin is the degree Celsius. Like other SI units, the kelvin can also be modified by adding a metric prefix that multiplies it by a power of 10:

SI multiples of kelvin (K) Submultiples Multiples Value SI symbol Name Value SI symbol Name


10−1 K	dK	decikelvin	101 K	daK	decakelvin
10−2 K	cK	centikelvin	102 K	hK	hectokelvin
10−3 K	mK	millikelvin	103 K	kK	kilokelvin
10−6 K	µK	microkelvin	106 K	MK	megakelvin
10−9 K	nK	nanokelvin	109 K	GK	gigakelvin
10−12 K	pK	picokelvin	1012 K	TK	terakelvin
10−15 K	fK	femtokelvin	1015 K	PK	petakelvin
10−18 K	aK	attokelvin	1018 K	EK	exakelvin
10−21 K	zK	zeptokelvin	1021 K	ZK	zettakelvin
10−24 K	yK	yoctokelvin	1024 K	YK	yottakelvin
10−27 K	rK	rontokelvin	1027 K	RK	ronnakelvin
10−30 K	qK	quectokelvin	1030 K	QK	quettakelvin

Unicode character

The symbol is encoded in Unicode at code point U+212A K KELVIN SIGN. However, this is a compatibility character provided for compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard recommends using U+004B K LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K instead; that is, a normal capital K. "Three letterlike symbols have been given canonical equivalence to regular letters: U+2126 Ω OHM SIGN, U+212A K KELVIN SIGN, and U+212B Å ANGSTROM SIGN. In all three instances, the regular letter should be used."[31]

References

^ a b c d BIPM (20 May 2019). "Mise en pratique for the definition of the kelvin in the SI". BIPM.org. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
^ a b c d e f g "SI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI) – 9th edition". BIPM. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "SI base unit: kelvin (K)". bipm.org. BIPM. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
^ a b c d e "A Turning Point for Humanity: Redefining the World's Measurement System". Nist. 12 May 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Kelvin: Introduction". NIST. 14 May 2018. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
^ Benham, Elizabeth (6 October 2020). "Busting Myths about the Metric System". Nist. Taking Measure (official blog of the NIST). Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Handbook 44 – 2022 – Appendix C – General Tables of Units of Measurement" (PDF). nist.gov. NIST. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ a b "Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM (1967)". bipm.org. BIPM. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Kelvin: History". Nist. 14 May 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ Thomson, William. "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault's Observations". zapatopi.net. Philosophical Magazine. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ a b Thomson, William. "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault's Observations (1881 reprint)" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ Lord Kelvin, William (October 1848). "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale". Philosophical Magazine. Archived from the original on 1 February 2008. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
^ Thomson, William. "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule's equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault's Observations on Steam (Excerpts)". Zapatopi.net. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and Philosophical Magazine. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ For example, Encyclopaedia Britannica editions from the 1920s and 1950s, one example being the article "Planets".
^ James Thomson (1873) "A quantitative investigation of certain relations between the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid states of water-substance", Proceedings of the Royal Society, 22 : 27–36. From a footnote on page 28: " … the three curves would meet or cross each other in one point, which I have called the triple point".
^ "Resolution 3 of the 9th CGPM (1948)". bipm.org. BIPM. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Resolution 3 of the 10th CGPM (1954)". bipm.org. BIPM. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Resolution 3: Definition of the thermodynamic temperature scale". Resolutions of the 10th CGPM. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 1954. Archived from the original on 23 June 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
^ "Resolution 3: SI unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)". Resolutions of the 13th CGPM. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 1967. Archived from the original on 21 April 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
^ "Resolution 4 of the 13th CGPM (1967)". bipm.org. BIPM. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Resolution 4: Definition of the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)". Resolutions of the 13th CGPM. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 1967. Archived from the original on 15 June 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
^ "Resolution 10 of the 23rd CGPM (2007)". bipm.org. BIPM. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)". SI Brochure, 8th edition. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 1967. pp. Section 2.1.1.5. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
^ a b Ian Mills (29 September 2010). "Draft Chapter 2 for SI Brochure, following redefinitions of the base units" (PDF). CCU. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 January 2011. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
^ "General Conference on Weights and Measures approves possible changes to the International System of Units, including redefinition of the kilogram" (PDF) (Press release). Sèvres, France: General Conference on Weights and Measures. 23 October 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
^ Wood, B. (3–4 November 2014). "Report on the Meeting of the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants" (PDF). BIPM. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2015. [BIPM director Martin] Milton responded to a question about what would happen if ... the CIPM or the CGPM voted not to move forward with the redefinition of the SI. He responded that he felt that by that time the decision to move forward should be seen as a foregone conclusion.
^ "2018 CODATA Value: Boltzmann constant". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
^ a b "Resolution 1 of the 26th CGPM (2018)". bipm.org. BIPM. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Updating the definition of the kelvin" (PDF). International Bureau for Weights and Measures (BIPM). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2008. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
^ Newell, D B; Cabiati, F; Fischer, J; Fujii, K; Karshenboim, S G; Margolis, H S; de Mirandés, E; Mohr, P J; Nez, F; Pachucki, K; Quinn, T J; Taylor, B N; Wang, M; Wood, B M; Zhang, Z; et al. (Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) Task Group on Fundamental Constants) (29 January 2018). "The CODATA 2017 values of h, e, k, and NA for the revision of the SI". Metrologia. 55 (1): L13–L16. Bibcode:2018Metro..55L..13N. doi:10.1088/1681-7575/aa950a.
^ "22.2". The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0 (PDF). Mountain View, CA, USA: The Unicode Consortium. August 2015. ISBN 978-1-936213-10-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2015.

Bibliography

Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (2019). "The International System of Units (SI) Brochure" (PDF). 9th Edition. International Committee for Weights and Measures. Retrieved 28 April 2022.

External links

Look up kelvin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Retrieved from "//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&oldid=1124165320"

Page 2

Century

For other uses, see 18th century (disambiguation).

Millennium Centuries Timelines State leaders Decades Categories:

2nd millennium

17th century
18th century
19th century

17th century
18th century
19th century

17th century
18th century
19th century

1700s
1710s
1720s
1730s
1740s

1750s
1760s
1770s
1780s
1790s

Births – Deaths
Establishments – Disestablishments

Political boundaries at the beginning of year 1700

Storming of the Bastille, July 14, 1789, an iconic event of the French Revolution.

Development of the Watt steam engine in the late 18th century was an important element in the Industrial Revolution in Europe.

The American Revolutionary War took place in the late 18th century.

The 18th century lasted from January 1, 1701 (MDCCI) to December 31, 1800 (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of Enlightenment thinking culminated in the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions. During the century, slave trading and human trafficking expanded across the shores of the Atlantic, while declining in Russia,[1] China,[2] and Korea. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures, including the structures and beliefs that supported slavery. The Industrial Revolution began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in human society and the environment.

Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.[3][4] To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century[5] may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815[6] or even later.[7]

The period is also known as the "century of lights" or the "century of reason". In continental Europe, philosophers dreamed of a brighter age. For some, this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789, though this was later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the French Republic in the French Revolutionary Wars.

The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring states of the Prussia, Russia, and Austria, which partitioned the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth between themselves, changing the landscape of Central Europe and politics for the next hundred years.

The Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a consequence, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements of the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman Empire military may have fallen behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century. In Southwest and Central Asia, Nader Shah led successful military campaigns and major invasions, which indirectly led to the founding of the Durrani Empire.

The European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the Age of Sail. European colonization intensified in present-day Indonesia, where the Dutch East India Company established increasing levels of control over the Mataram Sultanate. Mainland Southeast Asia would be embroiled in the Konbaung-Ayutthaya Wars and the Tây Sơn rebellion, while in East Asia, the century marked the High Qing era and the continual seclusion policies of the Tokugawa shogunate.

Various conflicts throughout the century, including the War of the Spanish Succession and the French and Indian War saw Great Britain triumphing over its European rivals to become the preeminent colonial power in Europe. However, Britain lost its colonies in North America after the American Revolutionary War, which went on to form the United States, initiating the decolonization of the Americas. The European colonization of Australia and New Zealand began during the late half of the century.

In the Indian subcontinent, the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb marked the end of medieval India and the beginning of an increasing level of European influence and control in the region, which coincided with a period of rapid Maratha expansion. By the middle of the century, the British East India Company began to conquer the eastern parts of India, a process which accelerated after their victory over the Nawab of Bengal and their French allies at the Battle of Plassey.[8] By the end of the century, Company rule in India had come to cover more regions within South Asia, the British would also expand to the south, participating in the Anglo-Mysore Wars against the Kingdom of Mysore, governed by Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali.[9][10]

Events

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the 18th century.

1701–1750

Europe at the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession, 1700

The Battle of Poltava in 1709 turned the Russian Empire into a European power.

John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough

1700–1721: Great Northern War between the Russian and Swedish Empires.
1701: Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I.
1701–1714: The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe.[11]
1702–1715: Camisard rebellion in France.
1703: Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great; it is the Russian capital until 1918.
1703–1711: The Rákóczi uprising against the Habsburg monarchy.
1704: End of Japan's Genroku period.
1704: First Javanese War of Succession.[12]
1706–1713: The War of the Spanish Succession: French troops defeated at the battles of Ramillies and Turin.
1707: Death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb leads to the fragmentation of the Mughal Empire.
1707: The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments, thus establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain.[13]
1708: The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
1708–1709: Famine kills one-third of East Prussia's population.
1709: Foundation of the Hotak Afghan Empire.
1709: The Great Frost of 1709 marks the coldest winter in 500 years, contributing to the defeat of Sweden at Poltava.
1710: The world's first copyright legislation, Britain's Statute of Anne, takes effect.
1710–1711: Ottoman Empire fights Russia in the Russo-Turkish War and regains Azov.
1711: Bukhara Khanate dissolves as local begs seize power.
1711–1715: Tuscarora War between British, Dutch, and German settlers and the Tuscarora people of North Carolina.
1713: The Kangxi Emperor acknowledges the full recovery of the Chinese economy since its apex during the Ming.
1714: In Amsterdam, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the mercury-in-glass thermometer, which remains the most reliable and accurate thermometer until the electronic era.
1715: The first Jacobite rising breaks out; the British halt the Jacobite advance at the Battle of Sheriffmuir; Battle of Preston.
1716: Establishment of the Sikh Confederacy along the present-day India-Pakistan border.
1716–1718: Austro-Venetian-Turkish War.
1718: The city of New Orleans is founded by the French in North America.
1718–1720: War of the Quadruple Alliance between Spain, France, Britain, Austria, and the Netherlands.
1718–1730: Tulip period of the Ottoman Empire.
1719: Second Javanese War of Succession.[14]
1720: The South Sea Bubble.
1720–1721: The Great Plague of Marseille.
1720: Qing forces oust Dzungar invaders from Tibet.
1721: The Treaty of Nystad is signed, ending the Great Northern War.
1721: Sack of Shamakhi, massacre of its Shia population by Sunni Lezgins.
1722: Siege of Isfahan results in the handover of Iran to the Hotaki Afghans.
1722–1723: Russo-Persian War.
1722–1725: Controversy over William Wood's halfpence leads to the Drapier's Letters and begins the Irish economic independence from England movement.

Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah with the Persian invader Nader Shah.
1723: Slavery is abolished in Russia; Peter the Great converts household slaves into house serfs.[15]
1723–1730: The "Great Disaster", an invasion of Kazakh territories by the Dzungars.
1723–1732: The Qing and the Dzungars fight a series of wars across Qinghai, Dzungaria, and Outer Mongolia, with inconclusive results.
1724: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit proposes the Fahrenheit temperature scale.
1725: Austro-Spanish alliance revived. Russia joins in 1726.
1727–1729: Anglo-Spanish War ends inconclusively.

1730: Mahmud I takes over Ottoman Empire after the Patrona Halil revolt, ending the Tulip period.
1730–1760: The First Great Awakening takes place in Great Britain and North America.
1732–1734: Crimean Tatar raids into Russia.[16]
1733–1738: War of the Polish Succession.

Qianlong Emperor
1735–1739: Austro-Russo-Turkish War.
1735–1799: The Qianlong Emperor of China oversees a huge expansion in territory.
1738–1756: Famine across the Sahel; half the population of Timbuktu dies.[17]
1737–1738: Hotaki Afghan Empire ends after the Siege of Kandahar by Nader Shah.
1739: Great Britain and Spain fight the War of Jenkins' Ear in the Caribbean.
1739: Nader Shah defeats a pan-Indian army of 300,000 at the Battle of Karnal. Taxation is stopped in Iran for three years.

1739–1740: Nader Shah's Sindh expedition.
1740: Great Awakening, George Whitefield
1740–1741: Famine in Ireland kills 20 percent of the population.
1741–1743: Iran invades Uzbekistan, Khwarazm, Dagestan, and Oman.
1741–1751: Maratha invasions of Bengal.
1740–1748: War of the Austrian Succession.
1742:
- Marvel's Mill, the first water-powered cotton mill, begins operation in England.[18]
- Anders Celsius proposes an inverted form of the centigrade temperature, which is later renamed Celsius in his honor.
1742: Premiere of Handel's Messiah
1743–1746: Another Ottoman-Persian War involves 375,000 men but ultimately ends in a stalemate.

The extinction of the Scottish clan system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.[19]
1744: The First Saudi State is founded by Mohammed Ibn Saud.[20]
1744: Battle of Toulon is fought off the coast of France.
1744–1748: The First Carnatic War is fought between the British, the French, the Marathas, and Mysore in India.
1745: Second Jacobite rising is begun by Charles Edward Stuart in Scotland.
1747: The Durrani Empire is founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani.
1748: The Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War.
1748–1754: The Second Carnatic War is fought between the British, the French, the Marathas, and Mysore in India.
1750: Peak of the Little Ice Age.

1751–1800

1754: The Treaty of Pondicherry ends the Second Carnatic War and recognizes Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah as Nawab of the Carnatic.
1754: King's College is founded by a royal charter of George II of Great Britain.[21]
1754–1763: The French and Indian War, the North American chapter of the Seven Years' War, is fought in colonial North America, mostly by the French and their allies against the English and their allies.
1755: The great Lisbon earthquake destroys most of Portugal's capital and kills up to 100,000.
1755: The Dzungar genocide depopulates much of northern Xinjiang, allowing for Han, Uyghur, Khalkha Mongol, and Manchu colonization.
1755–1763: The Great Upheaval forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
1756–1763: The Seven Years' War is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world.
1756–1763: The Third Carnatic War is fought between the British, the French, and Mysore in India.
1757: British conquest of Bengal.

Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia.

1760: George III becomes King of Britain.
1761: Maratha Empire defeated at Battle of Panipat.
1762–1796: Reign of Catherine the Great of Russia.
1763: The Treaty of Paris ends the Seven Years' War and Third Carnatic War.
1764: The Mughals are defeated at the Battle of Buxar.
1765: The Stamp Act is introduced into the American colonies by the British Parliament.
1765–1767: The Burmese invade Thailand and utterly destroy Attuthaya.
1765–1769: Burma under Hsinbyushin repels four invasions from Qing China, securing hegemony over the Shan states.
1766: Christian VII becomes king of Denmark. He was king of Denmark to 1808.
1766–1799: Anglo-Mysore Wars.
1767: Taksin expels Burmese invaders and reunites Thailand under an authoritarian regime.
1768–1772: War of the Bar Confederation.
1768–1774: Russo-Turkish War.
1769: Spanish missionaries establish the first of 21 missions in California.
1769–1770: James Cook explores and maps New Zealand and Australia.
1769–1773: The Bengal famine of 1770 kills one-third of the Bengal population.
1769: The French East India Company dissolves, only to be revived in 1785.
1769: French expeditions capture clove plants in Ambon, ending the VOC monopoly of the plant.[22] (to 1772)

1770–1771: Famine in Czech lands kills hundreds of thousands.
1771: The Plague Riot in Moscow.
1771: The Kalmyk Khanate dissolves as the territory becomes colonized by Russians. More than a hundred thousand Kalmyks migrate back to Qing Dzungaria.
1772: Gustav III of Sweden stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch.

Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
1772–1779: Maratha Empire fights Britain and Raghunathrao's forces during the First Anglo-Maratha War.
1772–1795: The Partitions of Poland end the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and erase Poland from the map for 123 years.
1773–1775: Pugachev's Rebellion, the largest peasant revolt in Russian history.
1773: East India Company starts operations in Bengal to smuggle opium into China.
1775: Russia imposes a reduction in autonomy on the Zaporizhian Cossacks of Ukraine.
1775–1782: First Anglo-Maratha War.
1775–1783: American Revolutionary War.
1776: Several Kongsi Republics are founded by Chinese settlers in the island of Borneo. They are some of the first democracies in Asia.
1776–1777: A Spanish-Portuguese War occurs over land in the South American frontiers.
1776: Illuminati founded by Adam Weishaupt.
1776: The United States Declaration of Independence is adopted by the Continental Congress in Philadelphia.
1776: Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations.
1778: James Cook becomes the first European to land on the Hawaiian Islands.
1778: Franco-American alliance signed.
1778: Spain acquires its first permanent holding in Africa from the Portuguese, which is administrated by the newly-established La Plata Viceroyalty.
1778: Vietnam is reunified for the first time in 200 years by the Tay Son brothers. The Tây Sơn dynasty has been established, terminated the Lê dynasty
1779–1879: Xhosa Wars between British and Boer settlers and the Xhosas in the South African Republic.
1779–1783: Britain loses several islands and colonial outposts all over the world to the combined Franco-Spanish navy.
1779: Iran enters yet another period of conflict and civil war after the prosperous reign of Karim Khan Zand.

1780: Outbreak of the indigenous rebellion against Spanish colonization led by Túpac Amaru II in Peru.
1781: The city of Los Angeles is founded by Spanish settlers.

George Washington
1781–1785: Serfdom is abolished in the Austrian monarchy (first step; second step in 1848).
1782: The Thonburi Kingdom of Thailand is dissolved after a palace coup.
1783: The Treaty of Paris formally ends the American Revolutionary War.
1783: Russian annexation of Crimea.
1785–1791: Imam Sheikh Mansur, a Chechen warrior and Muslim mystic, leads a coalition of Muslim Caucasian tribes from throughout the Caucasus in a holy war against Russian settlers and military bases in the Caucasus, as well as against local traditionalists, who followed the traditional customs and common law (Adat) rather than the theocratic Sharia.[23]
1785–1795: The Northwest Indian War is fought between the United States and Native Americans.
1785–1787: The Maratha-Mysore War concludes with an exchange of territories in the Deccan.
1786–1787: Mozart premieres The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni
1787: The Tuareg occupies Timbuktu until the 19th century.
1787–1792: Russo-Turkish War.
1788: First Fleet arrives in Australia
1788–1790: Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790).

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
1788–1789: A Qing attempt to reinstall an exiled Vietnamese king in northern Vietnam ends in disaster.
1789: George Washington is elected the first President of the United States; he serves until 1797.
1789 : Quang Trung defeated the Qing army
1789–1799: French Revolution.

1789: The Liège Revolution.
1789: The Brabant Revolution.
1789: The Inconfidência Mineira, an unsuccessful separatist movement in central Brazil led by Tiradentes
1791: Suppression of the Liège Revolution by Austrian forces and re-establishment of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège.
1791–1795: George Vancouver explores the world during the Vancouver Expedition.
1791–1804: The Haitian Revolution.
1791: Mozart premieres The Magic Flute
1792–1802: The French Revolutionary Wars lead into the Napoleonic Wars, which last from 1803–1815.
1792: The New York Stock & Exchange Board is founded.
1792: Polish–Russian War of 1792.
1793: Upper Canada bans slavery.
1793: The largest yellow fever epidemic in American history kills as many as 5,000 people in Philadelphia, roughly 10% of the population.[24]
1793–1796: Revolt in the Vendée against the French Republic at the time of the Revolution.
1794–1816: The Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars, which were a series of incidents between settlers and New South Wales Corps and the Aboriginal Australian clans of the Hawkesbury river in Sydney, Australia.
1795: The Marseillaise is officially adopted as the French national anthem.

Napoleon at the Bridge of the Arcole
1795: The Battle of Nuʻuanu in the final days of King Kamehameha I's wars to unify the Hawaiian Islands.
1795–1796: Iran invades and devastates Georgia, prompting Russia to intervene and march on Tehran.
1796: Edward Jenner administers the first smallpox vaccination; smallpox killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century, including five reigning monarchs.[25]
1796: War of the First Coalition: The Battle of Montenotte marks Napoleon Bonaparte's first victory as an army commander.
1796: The British eject the Dutch from Ceylon and South Africa.
1796–1804: The White Lotus Rebellion against the Manchu dynasty in China.
1798: The Irish Rebellion fails to overthrow British rule in Ireland.
1798–1800: The Quasi-War is fought between the United States and France.
1799: Dutch East India Company is dissolved.
1799: Austro-Russian forces under Alexander Suvorov liberates much of Italy and Switzerland from French occupation.
1799: Coup of 18 Brumaire - Napoleon's coup d'etat brings the end of the French Revolution.
1799: Death of the Qianlong Emperor after 60 years of rule over China. His favorite official, Heshen, is ordered to commit suicide.
1800: On 1 January, the bankrupt Dutch East India Company (VOC) is formally dissolved and the nationalised Dutch East Indies are established.[26]

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

Main articles: Timeline of historic inventions § 18th century, and Timeline of scientific discoveries § 18th century

The Spinning Jenny

1709: The first piano was built by Bartolomeo Cristofori
1711: Tuning fork was invented by John Shore
1712: Steam engine invented by Thomas Newcomen
1714: Mercury thermometer by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
1717: Diving bell was successfully tested by Edmond Halley, sustainable to a depth of 55 ft
c. 1730: Octant navigational tool was developed by John Hadley in England, and Thomas Godfrey in America
1733: Flying shuttle invented by John Kay
1736: Europeans encountered rubber – the discovery was made by Charles Marie de La Condamine while on expedition in South America. It was named in 1770 by Joseph Priestley
c. 1740: Modern steel was developed by Benjamin Huntsman
1741: Vitus Bering discovers Alaska
1745: Leyden jar invented by Ewald Georg von Kleist was the first electrical capacitor
1751: Jacques de Vaucanson perfects the first precision lathe
1752: Lightning rod invented by Benjamin Franklin
1753: The first clock to be built in the New World (North America) was invented by Benjamin Banneker.
1755: The tallest wooden Bodhisattva statue in the world is erected at Puning Temple, Chengde, China.
1764: Spinning jenny created by James Hargreaves brought on the Industrial Revolution
1765: James Watt enhances Newcomen's steam engine, allowing new steel technologies
1761: The problem of longitude was finally resolved by the fourth chronometer of John Harrison
1763: Thomas Bayes publishes first version of Bayes' theorem, paving the way for Bayesian probability
1768–1779: James Cook mapped the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and discovered many Pacific Islands
1774: Joseph Priestley discovers "dephlogisticated air", oxygen

The Chinese Putuo Zongcheng Temple of Chengde, completed in 1771, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.
1775: Joseph Priestley first synthesis of "phlogisticated nitrous air", nitrous oxide, "laughing gas"
1776: First improved steam engines installed by James Watt
1776: Steamboat invented by Claude de Jouffroy
1777: Circular saw invented by Samuel Miller
1779: Photosynthesis was first discovered by Jan Ingenhousz
1781: William Herschel announces discovery of Uranus
1784: Bifocals invented by Benjamin Franklin
1784: Argand lamp invented by Aimé Argand[27]
1785: Power loom invented by Edmund Cartwright
1785: Automatic flour mill invented by Oliver Evans
1786: Threshing machine invented by Andrew Meikle
1787: Jacques Charles discovers Charles's law
1789: Antoine Lavoisier discovers the law of conservation of mass, the basis for chemistry, and begins modern chemistry
1798: Edward Jenner publishes a treatise about smallpox vaccination
1798: The Lithographic printing process invented by Alois Senefelder[28]
1799: Rosetta Stone discovered by Napoleon's troops

Literary and philosophical achievements

1703: The Love Suicides at Sonezaki by Chikamatsu first performed
1704–1717: One Thousand and One Nights translated into French by Antoine Galland. The work becomes immensely popular throughout Europe.
1704: A Tale of a Tub by Jonathan Swift first published
1712: The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope (publication of first version)
1719: Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe
1725: The New Science by Giambattista Vico
1726: Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift
1728: The Dunciad by Alexander Pope (publication of first version)
1744: A Little Pretty Pocket-Book becomes one of the first books marketed for children
1748: Chushingura (The Treasury of Loyal Retainers), popular Japanese puppet play, composed
1748: Clarissa by Samuel Richardson
1749: The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling by Henry Fielding
1751: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray published
1751–1785: The French Encyclopédie
1755: A Dictionary of the English Language by Samuel Johnson
1759: Candide by Voltaire
1759: The Theory of Moral Sentiments by Adam Smith
1759–1767: Tristram Shandy by Laurence Sterne
1762: Emile: or, On Education by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
1762: The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
1774: The Sorrows of Young Werther by Goethe first published
1776: Ugetsu Monogatari (Tales of Moonlight and Rain) by Ueda Akinari
1776: The Wealth of Nations, foundation of the modern theory of economy, was published by Adam Smith
1776–1789: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was published by Edward Gibbon
1779: Amazing Grace published by John Newton
1779–1782: Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets by Samuel Johnson
1781: Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant (publication of first edition)
1781: The Robbers by Friedrich Schiller first published
1782: Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos
1786: Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect by Robert Burns
1787–1788: The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay
1788: Critique of Practical Reason by Immanuel Kant
1789: Songs of Innocence by William Blake
1789: The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano by Olaudah Equiano
1790: Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow by Alexander Radishchev
1790: Reflections on the Revolution in France by Edmund Burke
1791: Rights of Man by Thomas Paine
1792: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft
1794: Songs of Experience by William Blake
1798: Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge
1798: An Essay on the Principle of Population published by Thomas Malthus
(mid-18th century): The Dream of the Red Chamber (authorship attributed to Cao Xueqin), one of the most famous Chinese novels

Musical works

1711: Rinaldo, Handel's first opera for the London stage, premiered
1721: Brandenburg Concertos by J.S. Bach
1723: The Four Seasons, violin concertos by Antonio Vivaldi, composed
1724: St John Passion by J.S. Bach
1727: St Matthew Passion composed by J.S. Bach
1733: Hippolyte et Aricie, first opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau
1741: Goldberg Variations for harpsichord published by Bach
1742: Messiah, oratorio by Handel premiered in Dublin
1749: Mass in B minor by J.S. Bach assembled in current form
1751: The Art of Fugue by J.S. Bach
1762: Orfeo ed Euridice, first "reform opera" by Gluck, performed in Vienna
1786: The Marriage of Figaro, opera by Mozart
1787: Don Giovanni, opera by Mozart
1788: Jupiter Symphony (Symphony No.41) composed by Mozart
1791: The Magic Flute, opera by Mozart
1791–1795: London symphonies by Haydn
1798: The Pathétique, piano sonata by Beethoven
1798: The Creation, oratorio by Haydn first performed

References

^ Volkov, Sergey. Concise History of Imperial Russia.
^ Rowe, William T. China's Last Empire.
^ Anderson, M. S. (1979). Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822548-5. OCLC 185538307.
^ Ribeiro, Aileen (2002). Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 (revised ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09151-9. OCLC 186413657.
^ Baines, Paul (2004). The Long 18th Century. London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-81372-0.
^ Marshall, P. J., ed. (2001). The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-924677-9. OCLC 174866045., "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1
^ O'Gorman, Frank (1997). The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series). A Hodder Arnold Publication. ISBN 978-0-340-56751-7. OCLC 243883533.
^ Campbell, John; Watts, William (1760). Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757. A. Millar, London.
^ Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, p. 207, ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0
^ Allana, Gulam (1988). Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 (2 ed.). Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania: Royal Book Company. p. 78. ISBN 9789694070919. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
^ "War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714". Historyofwar.org. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ Ricklefs (1991), page 82
^ Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide (2007-05-03). "The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707". Historic-uk.com. Archived from the original on 8 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ Ricklefs (1991), page 84
^ "Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History". Britannica.com. 1910-01-31. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ "List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars". Zum.de. Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ "Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends". Ag.arizona.edu. 1997-08-10. Archived from the original on 2012-02-11. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ Wadsworth, Alfred P.; Mann, Julia De Lacy (1931). The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780. Manchester University Press. p. 433. OCLC 2859370.
^ "A guide to Scottish clans". Unique-cottages.co.uk. Archived from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ "Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ "History". Columbia University.
^ Ricklefs (1991), page 102
^ "Sufism in the Caucasus". Islamicsupremecouncil.org. Archived from the original on February 23, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
^ "Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793". EyeWitness to History. Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
^ Riedel S (2005). "Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination". Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 18 (1): 21–5. doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028. PMC 1200696. PMID 16200144.
^ Ricklefs (1991), page 106
^ Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions, Encyclopædia Britannica Archived August 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5

External links

Media related to 18th century at Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=18th_century&oldid=1123849733"

Contributors and Attributions

History

Precursors

Lord Kelvin

Triple point standard

2019 redefinition

Practical uses

Colour temperature

Kelvin as a unit of noise temperature

Derived units and SI multiples

Unicode character

See also

References

Bibliography

External links

Page 2

Events

1701–1750

1751–1800

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

Literary and philosophical achievements

Musical works

References

Further reading

External links

Postagens relacionadas

Toplist

Última postagem

Tag