The conflict perspective is a view of society that posits conflict as a normal feature of social life. According to its adherents, conflict influences the distribution of power and the direction and magnitude of social change. The conflict perspective is one of two major sociological theories. Also known as the "conflict model," it gives sociologists explanations for happenings in history and in society. Outlined by theorists such as Karl Marx, the conflict perspective is antithetical to the order perspective.
The conflict perspective was most famously proposed by Karl Marx in the mid-1800s. Marx, whose many teachings stressed the dynamic tension between the classes, believed that conflict defined the happenings of society. He believed that this conflict would determine the major events and outcomes of history. His conflict perspective believed that the split between the divisions of labor resulted in conflict between the masses and drove the social changes of the time.
Function
Under the conflict perspective, the basic form of interaction in society is not cooperation, but competition, and this leads to conflict. Because the individuals and groups of society compete for advantage, there is constantly conflict for change. When there are large groups competing, such as Marx's bourgeois and proletariat, the outcome is often major social change. This conflict can arise from the desire to own the means of production, to own the power or land, or to own the realm of political power, and can be revolutionary, as it was in many of the communist societies that practiced Marxist teachings.
One major teaching of the conflict perspective has it that conflict arises from the dissimilar goals and interests of different social groups--the oppressed, the dominant, the powerful, or the powerless. The conflict can arise in different areas: law, religion, education, or media, and can be found in the powerful protecting their monopoly on these holdings, or the powerless attempting to change the status quo.
Significance
The outcomes of the conflict perspective have had a major impact on social events in the world for two centuries. The Russian Revolution of 1917 can be seen as an outcome of the conflict perspective. This event illustrates the major revolutionary power of the rise of one social group against another. Even more modern conflict theorists stress the power of the have-nots against the haves. In any society, conflict theorists argue that there is the potential for revolutionary conflict as the few in power maintain control over the many out of it.
Theories/Speculation
Another theory related to the conflict perspective argues not against the conflict model, but for the duality of social life. These theorists argue that the nature of society can be found in examples of both the conflict perspective and the order perspective. Believers of this theory find examples of harmony and integration in society, side by side with competition and subordination.
Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources. This perspective is a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx (1818–1883), who saw society as being made up of two classes, the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and the proletariat (workers), who must compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time. Social institutions like government, education, and religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social structure.Learning Outcomes
In the economic sphere, Marx focused on the “mode of production” (e.g., the industrial factory) and “relations of production” (e.g., unequal power between workers and factory owners). The bourgeoisie owns and controls the means of production, which leads to exploitation due to the profit motive. In this arrangement, proletarians have only their labor to sell, and do not own or control capital. False consciousness is Marx’s term for the proletarian’s inability to see her real position within the class system, a mis-recognition that is complicated by the control that the bourgeoisie often exerts over the media outlets that disseminate and normalize information. These are just some of the structural constrains that prevent workers from joining together in what Marx called class consciousness, or a common group identity as exploited proletarians and potential revolutionaries.
Watch this video for an overview of Marx’s conflict theory.
Figure 1. Max Weber.
German sociologist Max Weber agreed with some of Marx’s main ideas, but also believed that in addition to economic inequalities, there were inequalities of political power and social structure that caused conflict. Weber noted that different groups were affected differently based on education, race, and gender, and that people’s reactions to inequality were moderated by class differences and rates of social mobility, as well as by perceptions about the legitimacy of those in power.
Ida B. Wells articulated the conflict perspective when she theorized a connection between an increase in lynching and an increase in Black socio-economic mobility in the United States from the late 1800s into the mid-20th century. She also examined competition within the feminist movement as women fought for the right to vote, yet the presumably egalitarian mainstream suffragist movements were headed by white women who excluded Black women from suffrage. W.E.B. DuBois also examined race in the U.S. and in U.S. colonies from a conflict perspective, and emphasized the importance of a reserve labor force, made up of Black men. Race conflict paradigms will be examined later in the course in the module devoted to race and ethnicity.
W.E.B. DuBois is a classic sociologist who, after earning a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1895 (the first Black man to do so), went on to an extremely productive career with extensive publication, research, theorizing, and activism. The Philadelphia Negro (1896) is considered one of the first examples of scientifically framed and conducted sociology research. DuBois’ study included over 2,500 in-person interviews conducted with African American households in the seventh ward of Philadelphia and even had visual representations of data such as bar graphs to illustrate the realities of racism
He entered the national stage with an article written for The Atlantic in 1897 in which he described double consciousness. Read the following passage from DuBois’ article as he articulates double consciousness:
“It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One feels his two-ness, — an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder. The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife, — this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self. In this merging he wishes neither of the older selves to be lost. He does not wish to Africanize America, for America has too much to teach the world and Africa; he does not with to bleach his Negro blood in a flood of white Americanism, for he believes—foolishly, perhaps, but fervently—that Negro blood has yet a message for the world. He simply wishes to make it possible for a man to be both a Negro and an American without being cursed and spit upon by his fellows, without losing the opportunity of self-development.”
C. Wright Mills, who coined the term sociological imagination, also used conflict theory to examine systems of power and the ways in which government, military, and corporations formed a power elite (1956) in the United States in the 1950s. Bernie Sanders raised these issues in the 2016 U.S. presidential election by pointing out that both Republican and Democrat candidates were accepting campaign contributions from banks and investment firms on Wall Street, which he argued would make them subject to corporate influence.
Criticism
Just as structural functionalism was criticized for focusing too much on the stability of societies, conflict theory has been criticized because it tends to focus on conflict to the exclusion of recognizing stability. Many social structures are extremely stable or have gradually progressed over time rather than changing abruptly, as conflict theory would suggest.
Figure 2. Over the years, feminist demands have changed. First-wave feminists fought for basic citizenship rights, such as the right to vote, while third wave feminists are concerned with more complex social movements, like post-structuralism.
Feminist theory was developed to fill a void in Marxism and neo-Marxism that examined class, but not gender as a distinct category. Feminist theory examines gender and gender inequality and also points out the male-centric aspects of conflict theory. It focuses on analyzing the limitations faced by women when they claim the right to equality with men. Additionally, feminist scholars examine the gendered nature of human interactions, which makes it a microsociological as opposed to a macrosociological theory.
Feminist scholars study a range of topics, including sexual orientation, race, economic status, and nationality. However, at the core of feminist sociology is the idea that, in most societies, women have been systematically oppressed, and that men have been historically dominant. This system of seemingly “natural” male control is referred to as patriarchy.
From the early work of women sociologists like Harriet Martineau, feminist sociology has focused on the power relationships and inequalities between women and men. How can the conditions of inequality faced by women be addressed?
Feminist theory has been criticized for its early focus on the lived experiences of white, educated women—which represent just a small subset within American society. Intersectional theory examines multiple, overlapping identities that include Black, Latina, Asian, gay, trans, working class, poor, single parent, working, stay-at-home, immigrant, and undocumented women, among others. This synthesis of analytical categories takes into consideration the various lived experiences of a more diverse range of women.
To take a contemporary example, the #MeToo movement began when white actress Ashley Judd came forward in 2017 and claimed that film producer Harvey Weinstein invited her to his hotel room, greeted her in a bathrobe, and asked her to massage him or watch him shower. The phrase “me too” had actually been coined in 2006 by Tarana Burke, a Black activist who sought to bring attention to women who had been sexually assaulted. Many other wealthy, white, powerful women came forward and said or tweeted #MeToo. Within one year, the #MeToo movement had become intersectional, stretching across industries, racial and ethnic backgrounds, age, sexual orientation, and gender identities.
bourgeoisie: those who owned the means of production (i.e. factory owners in the Industrial Revolution) class consciousness: awareness that one is a proletarian, a worker, and has an understanding of solidarity in a class struggle against the bourgeoisie conflict theory: a theory that examines society as a competition for limited resources double consciousness: a term used to describe an individual whose identity is divided into several facets false consciousness: proletarians are unable to identify and understand their own class position and exploitation feminist: one who believes that females should be equal to males feminist theory: the critical analysis of the way gender affects societal structures, power, and inequality intersectional theory: utilizes multiple identities (such as race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, economic class, etc.) as important to understanding inequality patriarchy: a set of institutional structures (like property rights, access to positions of power and sources of income) that are based on the belief that males (patri means “father”) are and should be dominant power elite: the dominant individuals and groups within the military, business world, governments, and other institutions who are at the top of the power hierarchy proletariat: those who labor in the means of production (workers) and who do not possess or control capital, as the bourgeoisie does
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