Who of the following are typical examples of a significant other in the development of the self?

Adolescent developmental domains are intertwined and strongly influenced by experiences and environments.

Adolescent developmental domains are intertwined and strongly influenced by experiences and environments.

The developmental changes that typically occur in adolescence have been documented extensively in literature that is widely accessible. Importantly, each area of development is intertwined with the other–physical, social, emotional and cognitive development–along with sociocultural and environmental influences and experiences. A summary of some of the key developmental aspects of adolescence and the nature of these changes follows.

Physical development

In early adolescence, the body undergoes more developmental change than at any other time, apart from birth to two years old. The rate of growth is rapid and uneven, with a different pace and rate of change for each individual. Physical changes include increases in height, weight, and internal organ size as well as changes in skeletal and muscular systems.

Puberty occurs in early adolescence, triggered by the release of hormones which lead to the development of primary sex characteristics (genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (eg breast development in girls; facial hair in boys). The increased hormone production affects skeletal growth, hair production, and skin changes.

Physical changes are visible to all and highlight the range and pace of change. This sometimes leads to adolescents feeling more or less mature than others. Physical development growth spurts occur about two years earlier in girls than boys.

Social development

Adolescent social development is often described as the process of establishing a sense of identity and establishing a role and purpose. It is an outwards sense of oneself. Body image is a key factor in developing a sense of self and identity, especially for girls, and the family and increasingly peers play an important role assisting and supporting the adolescent to achieve adult roles. Risk-taking is a natural part of the adolescent journey. Social development and emotional development are closely intertwined as young people search for a sense of self and personal identity.

Emotional development

The way a person thinks and feels about themselves and others, their inward thoughts, is key to their emotional development. Developing and demonstrating individual emotional assets such as resilience, self esteem and coping skills is heightened during adolescence because of the rapid changes being experienced. Schools are important sites for social and emotional learning and have developed policies and programs around student wellness, often with a focus on a strengths-based approach.

Cognitive development

Cognition is the process involving thought, rationale and perception. The physical changes of the brain that occur during adolescence follow typical patterns of cognitive development. They are characterised by the development of higher-level cognitive functioning that aligns with the changes in brain structure and function, particularly in the prefrontal cortex region.

The structural and functional brain changes affect the opportunity for increased memory and processing. They may also contribute to vulnerability, such as risk taking and increased sensitivity to mental illness.

In recent years data from developmental neuroimaging has enabled greater understanding of the changes that occur in the human brain during adolescence. This data points towards a second window of opportunity in brain development. Adolescence is a sensitive brain period, that is a time when brain plasticity is heightened. During this time, there is an opportunity for learning and cognitive growth as the brain adapts in structure and function in response to experiences.

In the next step we will pull together the key developmental aspects of adolescence with a discussion about your own experiences.

Your task

Read Caskey and Anfara’s article, Developmental Characteristics of Young Adolescents.1

• What have you read in this article that might change the way you interact with adolescents in your sphere?
• How will you do things differently bearing in mind the implications for practice?

Share your answers in the comments.

References

By Dr. Shawn Sidhu | January 07, 2019

Those of us who work with children can sometimes forget how important sibling relationships are to the healthy development of children and teenagers. We tend to focus more on parent relationships, which while incredibly important, are only a party of the family system. Yet 82 percent of children live with a sibling, and relationships with our siblings may be the longest of our lives.

Siblings are important for many reasons. First, given their closeness in age, kids may be more likely to tell their siblings things that they might not tell their parents. This might include typical topics such as friendships, relationships and school - but it may also include more worrisome topics, such as abuse, drug use, pregnancy, self-harming behavior or suicidal thoughts.

Second, given that children and teenagers are more likely to confide in their siblings, they may also turn more readily to their siblings as a source of support. This piece is critical, because we know that one of the biggest risk factors for developing youth is suffering in isolation. The ability for young people to express their feelings to anyone - sibling, parent, or friend - can be highly therapeutic and can prevent a worsening of depressed mood or anxiety. Finally, siblings can serve as a sounding board for one another before trying things out in social settings. There is evidence to suggest that healthy sibling relationships promote empathy, prosocial behavior and academic achievement.

While healthy sibling relationships can be an incredible source of support, unhealthy and toxic sibling relationships may be equally devastating and destabilizing. Siblings sometimes say things to one another that parents would never say to their child (termed "sibling bullying"), and thus siblings can be even more emotionally abusive to one another than adults typically are to children.

Another source of stress can be when adults compare one sibling to another. This has the dual effect of shattering the self-esteem of the sibling who feels judged, while driving a wedge between the siblings and pushing them further apart. Also, when one sibling is suffering medically or emotionally, it can be a considerable stressor for the entire household including other siblings.

A sibling who is engaging in unhealthy behavior could model this behavior to other, typically younger, siblings who follow suit. For example, teenager girls are more likely to engage in sexual activity at an earlier age or get pregnant in high school if they've had an older sibling who has done the same. Toxic sibling relationships have been linked to increased substance use, depression, self-harming behavior and psychotic experiences such as hallucinations and delusions in adolescence.

To get the most out of sibling relationships, parents and child professionals can do the following:

1. Both parents and child professionals should ask about how sibling relationships are going, ways that they are healthy and also ways that they could be improved.
2. Celebrate sibling differences and avoid comparing siblings. This will promote self-esteem and prevent wedges from being formed between siblings.
3. Encourage siblings to work together and support one another.
4. Have both siblings earn rewards for cooperating with one another, but have neither of them receive this reward when they are not cooperating with one another. This will create an external incentive for them to work with one another until they are old enough that it becomes second nature.
5. When one child is suffering from a medical, developmental or emotional problem, try to ensure that other siblings also receive enough attention even thought his may be difficult. It is very common for children to develop their own emotional difficulties when their siblings are struggling.
6. In cases of sibling conflict where parents feel stuck, encourage families to seek out family counseling or family therapy in which a professional can help siblings to get on the same page with one another.

The power of sibling relationships can be life-changing in a positive way, and a little bit of maintenance can go a long way in ensuring that these relationships stay healthy in the long run.

Object relations is a variation of psychoanalytic theory that diverges from Sigmund Freud’s belief that humans are motivated by sexual and aggressive drives, suggesting instead that humans are primarily motivated by the need for contact with others—the need to form relationships.

The aim of an object relations therapist is to help an individual in therapy uncover early mental images that may contribute to any present difficulties in one’s relationships with others and adjust them in ways that may improve interpersonal functioning.

Basic Concepts in Object Relations

In the context of object relations theory, the term "objects" refers not to inanimate entities but to significant others with whom an individual relates, usually one's mother, father, or primary caregiver. In some cases, the term object may also be used to refer to a part of a person, such as a mother's breast, or to the mental representations of significant others.

Object relations theorists stress the importance of early family interactions, primarily the mother-infant relationship, in personality development. It is believed that infants form mental representations of themselves in relation to others and that these internal images significantly influence interpersonal relationships later in life. Since relationships are at the center of object relations theory, the person-therapist alliance is important to the success of therapy.

The term “object relations” refers to the dynamic internalized relationships between the self and significant others (objects). An object relation involves mental representations of:

1. The object as perceived by the self

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2. The self in relation to the object
3. The relationship between self and object

For example, an infant might think:

1. "My mother is good because she feeds me when I am hungry" (representation of the object).
2. "The fact that she takes care of me must mean that I am good" (representation of the self in relation to the object).
3. "I love my mother" (representation of the relationship).

Internal objects are formed during infancy through repeated experiences with one's caregiver. The images do not necessarily reflect reality but are subjectively constructed by an infant’s limited cognitive abilities. In healthy development, these mental representations evolve over time; in unhealthy development, they remain at an immature level. The internal images have enduring qualities and serve as templates for future relationships.

Central to object relations theory is the notion of splitting, which can be described as the mental separation of objects into "good" and "bad" parts and the subsequent repression of the "bad," or anxiety-provoking, aspects. Infants first experience splitting in their relationship with the primary caregiver: The caregiver is “good” when all the infant’s needs are satisfied and “bad” when they are not.

Initially, these two aspects of the object (the caregiver) are separated in the mind of the infant, and a similar process occurs as the infant comes to perceive good and bad parts of the self. If the mother is able to satisfactorily meet the needs of the infant or—in the language of object relations—if the mother is "good enough," then the child begins to merge both aspects of the mother, and by extension the self, into an integrated whole.

If the caregiver does not satisfactorily meet the infant’s needs, the infant may repress the "bad" aspects of the mother and of the self, which can cause difficulty in future relationships.

Development and History of Object Relations

Object relations theory is composed of the diverse and sometimes conflicting ideas of various theorists, mainly Melanie Klein, Ronald Fairbairn, and Donald Winnicott. Each of their theories place great emphasis on the mother-infant bond as a key factor in the development of a child’s psychic structure during the first three years of life. 

• Klein is often credited with founding the object relations approach. From her work with young children and infants, she concluded that they focused more on developing relationships, especially with their caregivers, than on controlling sexual urges, as Freud had proposed. Klein also focused her attention on the first few months of a child’s life, whereas Freud emphasized the importance of the first few years of life.
• Fairbairn agreed with Klein when he posited that humans are object-seeking beings, not pleasure-seeking beings. He viewed development as a gradual process during which individuals evolve from a state of complete, infantile dependence on the caregiver toward a state of interdependency, in which they still depend on others but are also capable of being relied upon.
• Winnicott stressed the importance of raising children in an environment where they are encouraged to develop a sense of independence but know that their caregiver will protect them from danger. He suggested that if the caregiver does not attend to the needs and potential of the child, the child may be led to develop a false self. The true self emerges when all aspects of the child are acknowledged and accepted.

Who Practices Object Relations?

Psychologists, psychotherapists, counselors, and social workers may earn certification in object relations therapy from one of several training institutions across the country. For example, the International Psychotherapy Institute (IPI), formerly the International Institute of Object Relations Theory, offers a two-year certificate program in Object Relations Theory and Practice for professionals involved in the mental health field. The Object Relations Institute for Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis offers a one-year introductory certificate program in object relations theory and clinical technique, as well as a more advanced two-year program. The Ottawa Institute for Object Relations Therapy also certifies psychotherapists in Object Relations Therapy.

Goals of Object Relations Therapy

Object relations therapy focuses on helping individuals identify and address deficits in their interpersonal functioning and explore ways that relationships can be improved. A therapist can help people in therapy understand how childhood object relations impact current emotions, motivations, and relationships and contribute to any problems being faced.

Aspects of the self that were split and repressed can be brought into awareness during therapy, and individuals can address these aspects of themselves in order to experience a more authentic existence. A therapist can also help a person explore ways to integrate the "good" and "bad" aspects of internal objects so that the person becomes able to see others more realistically. Therapy can often help a person to experience less internal conflict and become able to relate to others more fully.

Object Relations Techniques

Many of the techniques used in object relations therapy are similar to those employed in psychoanalytic and other psychodynamic therapies. The primary distinction lies in the therapist's way of thinking about what is happening in the therapeutic exchange. For example, in classical psychoanalysis, transference tends to be carefully analyzed, as it is thought to provide valuable information about the person in therapy. The object relations therapist, however, does not typically view transference reactions as evidence of the person in therapy’s unconscious conflicts. Rather, they are often seen as indications of the infantile object relations and defenses that may be considered to be the “root” of the individual's problems.

In the initial stage of object relations therapy, the therapist generally attempts to understand, through empathic listening and acceptance, the inner world, family background, fears, hopes, and needs of the person in therapy. Once a level of mutual trust has been developed, the therapist may guide the person in therapy into areas that may be more sensitive or guarded, with the purpose of promoting greater self-awareness and understanding.

During therapy, the behaviors of the person in therapy may help the therapist understand how the person is experienced and understood by others in that person’s environment. Because the therapist is likely to react in such a way as to encourage insight and help a person achieve greater awareness, an individual may strengthen, through the therapeutic process, the ability to form healthy object relations, which can be transferred to relationships outside of the counseling environment.

The success of object relations therapy is largely dependent on the nature of the therapeutic relationship. In the absence of a secure, trusting relationship, people in therapy are not likely to risk abandoning their internal objects or attachments, even if these relationships are unhealthy. Therefore, it may be necessary for object relations therapists to first develop an empathic, trusting relationship with a person in therapy and to create an environment in which an individual feels safe and understood.

Limitations of Object Relations Therapy

Early object relations therapists were criticized for underestimating the biological basis of some conditions, such as autism, learning difficulties, and some forms of psychosis. The value of object relations therapy in treating such conditions has been debated by many experts. Modern object relation theorists generally recognize that therapy alone is not sufficient for treating certain issues and that other types of therapy, as well as pharmacological support, may be necessary in some cases.

A form of psychodynamic therapy, object relations therapy typically requires a longer time commitment than some other forms of therapy. It may often last years, instead of months. While this length of time may be necessary to address certain broad, deep-seated, or long-standing concerns, briefer forms of therapy might be more appropriate for addressing issues that developed more recently in a person’s life or that have a narrower focus. Object relations therapy can also become quite costly, due to its length.

Some individuals prefer a more solution-focused approach and may find it difficult to work with the somewhat non-directive style of object relations therapy. Quick results may also be desired in some cases, such as when a person experiences addiction or another condition that may lead one to harm the self or others. The non-directive approach of object relations therapy is not considered sufficient to deal with such an issue. Once critical symptoms are dealt with, however, an individual may choose to engage in object relations therapy to determine how past relationships with significant others might contribute to present concerns.

References:

1. Goldstein, E. G. (2001).  Object relations theory and self psychology in social work practice. New York: The Free Press.
2. Horner, A. J. (1991). Psychoanalytic object relations therapy. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
3. James, R. K., & Gilliland, B. E. (2003). Psychoanalytic therapy. Retrieved from //wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/208/213940/psycho_therapy.pdf
4. Liebert, R. M., & Liebert, L. L. (1998). Liebert & Spiegler's personality strategies and issues (8th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
5. Scharff, J. S., & Scharff, D. E. (2005). The primer of object relations (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers
6. Schauer, A. H. (1986). Object-relations theory: A dialogue with Donald B. Rinsley. Journal of Counseling and Development, 65, 35-39.

Last Update: 05-09-2016