Consequentialism is a theory that says whether something is good or bad depends on its outcomes.An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. The most famous version of this theory is utilitarianism. Show
Although there are references to this idea in the works of ancient philosopher Epicurus, it’s closely associated with English philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Bentham’s theory of utilitarianism focussed on which actions were most likely to make people happy. If happiness was the experience of pleasure without pain, the most ethical actions were ones that caused the most possible happiness and the least possible pain. He even developed a calculator to work out which actions were better or worse – the ‘felicific calculus’. Because it counted every person’s pleasure or pain as the same, regardless of age, wealth, race, etc. utilitarianism could be seen as a radically egalitarian philosophy. Bentham’s views are most closely aligned with act utilitarianism. This basic form of consequentialism holds an action as ethical if and only if it produces more beneficial/pleasure-causing outcomes than negative/pain-causing ones. Whenever we are faced with a decision, an act consequentialist will expect us to ask that question. John Stuart Mill, a student of Bentham’s, disagreed. He believed it was too difficult for a society to run if it had to consider the specific costs/benefits of every single action. How could we have speeding laws, for example, if it would sometimes be ethical to break the speed limit? Instead, Mill believed we should figure out which set of rules would create the most happiness over an extended period of time and then apply those in every situation. This was his theory of rule utilitarianism. According to this theory, it would be unethical for you to speed on an empty street at two o’clock in the morning. Even if nobody would be hurt, our speeding laws mean less people are harmed overall. Keeping to those rules ensures that. Consequentialism is an attractive ethical approach because it provides clear and practical guidance – at least in situations where outcomes are easy to predict. The theory is also impartial. By asking us to maximise benefit for the largest number of people (or, for Peter Singer and other preference utilitarians, creatures who have preferences), we set aside our personal biases and self-interest to benefit others. One problem with the theory is that it can be hard to measure different benefits to decide which one is morally preferable. Is it better to give my money to charity or spend it studying medicine so I can save lives? Many forms of consequentialism have been proposed that attempt to deal with the issue of comparing moral value. The other concern people express is the tendency of consequentialism to use ‘ends justify the means’ logic. If all we are concerned with is getting good outcomes, this can seem to justify harming some people in order to benefit others. Is it ethical to allow some people to suffer so more people can live well?
This section briefly summaries the kinds of ethical theories that most often figure in discussions of topics in applied ethics. It should be noted both that these are kinds of theories and that no theory or kind of theory should be regarded as widely accepted. Act-Focused TheoriesAct-focused theories focus on acts (including omissions) and are primarily concerned with matters of right and wrong, obligation or duty, individual rights, etc. They try to answer one of the two fundamental practical questions of ethics, “What ought I to do?” (the other being “How ought I to be?”). Such theories can be thought of as offering alternative answers to the question, which features of acts (including omissions) determine whether they are right or wrong, or which features of acts make right acts right and wrong acts wrong. Consequentialist Theories
Act Consequentialist Theories
Rule Consequentialist Theories
Non-Consequentialist (incl. Deontological) Theories
Contractarian Theories
Contractualist Theories
Kantian Theories
Natural Law Theories
Rossian Moral Pluralism
Agent-Focused TheoriesAgent-focused theories focus on agents or the relations between them, rather than on acts. They include theories that focus primarily on the kind of person one should be or the kind of character one should have and, thus, on the nature of virtue and virtuous personhood. These try to answer the other fundamental practical question of ethics, “How ought I to be?” (The various theories classified as Virtue Ethics are prime examples of such theories.) Agent-focused theories also include theories that focus on relations between agents (the prime example being caring relations) and on the evaluation of the various aspects and expressions of these relations, and of the social practices and values that sustain them. Although there are some who view agent-focused theories as alternatives to act-focused ones, many such theories may be seen as necessary amendments or supplements to an adequate act-focused theory or as parts of a more general ethical theory that includes both act- and agent-focused elements. In this regard, it is worth noting both that some virtue theorists (including Aristotle) connect agent to action by claiming that virtue involves doing the right thing for the right reason, and that some act-focused theories connect actions to agents by claiming that relations between agents and other persons (including caring relations) give rise to special obligations to act in particular ways (including obligations of care). Virtue Theories
Care of Theories
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