Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 1 1) This is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out some key information. The author tells us in Paragraph 1, “In lexical decision tasks which ask participants to decide whether a string of letters is a word, Ps respond similarly to emotional and non-emotional words, whereas controls tend to respond more quickly to emotional words.” Quick glance at our answer choices shows we’re seeing average reaction time along the y-axis. We’re comparing the reaction time to emotional vs. non-emotional words for the Ps and controls groups. Based on what we learned from the passage, for the Ps group we expect the average reaction time to be roughly the same for emotional and non-emotional words. For the Controls, we expect the average reaction time to be shorter for emotional words and longer for non-emotional words.
2) This question is tangentially related to the passage. In Paragraph 2, the author mentions that Ps were much less likely than controls to inhibit responses and to acquire avoidance learning. We want an experimental procedure that helps look into this. How can researchers test how Ps perform versus controls in various types of operant conditioning? We’ll have to define these terms. Ultimately our answer is going to involve comparing the Ps and controls in some way. We’re focused on operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a theory of learning that focuses on changes in an individual’s observable behaviors. In operant conditioning, new or continued behaviors are impacted by new or continued consequences.  Avoidance learning is the process by which an individual learns a behavior or response to avoid a stressful or unpleasant situation. The behavior is to avoid, or to remove oneself from, the situation. The reinforcement for the behavior is to not experience the negative punishment, but rather experience the absence of punishment.
3) Just like the other questions we’ve gone through in this set, this is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out key information. The author highlights these key differences in Paragraph 1: The controls had an involuntary increase in moisture (sweating) which means increased skin conductivity. This is an indication of psychological and physiological arousal. This involuntary sweating is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The SNS is perhaps best known for mediating the neuronal and hormonal stress response commonly known as the fight-or-flight response. The SNS controls the body’s automatic response to danger, increasing the heart rate, dilating the blood vessels, slowing digestion, and moving blood flow to the heart, muscles, and brain. This ties into the startle response when presented with fear-inducing pictures. Participants in the Ps group are less likely to exhibit that startle response compared to controls.
4) This question is similar to our previous questions in that we’ll revisit the passage for key information. We’re asked about the numbers presented to the participants in the avoidance study: Five numbers were associated with a reward, while five were associated with electric shock. Within the context of avoidance learning, what do these numbers represent?
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 2 5) This is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out key information. The author actually makes our lives easier in this question because we’re actually told where in the passage we’ll be focusing our attention. The author explains that individuals’ beliefs regarding whether their behaviors will lead to positive and negative outcomes also motivate behavior. Social-cognitive theories of personality emphasize the role of cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging, in the development of personality. We want to know if this is consistent with a traditional behaviorist approach. A behaviorist will regard an individuals’ actions as ultimately being responses to external stimuli, driven by outcomes. A traditional behaviorist perspective sees outcomes, and not cognition, as the drive behind an individual’s choices and behaviors. Social learning theory believes that personality and behavior are determined by an individual’s cognition about the world around them. Ultimately, the behaviorist perspective is concerned with how environmental factors affect observable behavior. Beliefs fall under mental processes which are inconsistent with a traditional behaviorist approach. We’re looking for an answer that says the role of beliefs is inconsistent with a traditional behaviorist approach.
6) Our approach to this question is going to be similar to our approach to the previous question. This is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out key information, but ultimately, we’ll need to rely on knowing our vocabulary to answer this question correctly. We can keep Paragraph 4 in mind as we go through each term. Paragraph 4 is when the author explains self-determination theory (SDT). The author mentions controlled behaviors are due to pressure from social contacts (external motivation). Extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others—such as a promotion, praise, candy, money, or attention. Extrinsic motivation is therefore a broader term that can actually include external motivation.
7) At first glance, this is like a hybrid question in that we’ll have to reference some key information from the passage, but ultimately, we’ll use our external information to answer the question. The author tells us in Paragraph 4, “Healthcare professionals can increase autonomous motivation by supporting their patients’ initiatives and offering them different choices for treatment.” We want to find a statement that best applies Roger’s concept of incongruence to this suggestion. Carl Rogers believed that people strive to become self-actualized—the “best version” of themselves or “ideal self”. The gap between the “ideal” self and the real self can cause discomfort, unpleasant feelings, and lead to defensive behaviors – this gap is called incongruence.
8) To answer this question, we’ll have to think about where in the passage the author talks about autonomous motivation. The passage talks about self-determination theory and its focus on autonomous motivation in Paragraph 4. We’re told, “Autonomous motivation refers to self-initiating behaviors that are tied to one’s values and goals.” This is different than controlled behaviors which are performed due to pressure from social contacts or internal psychological pressures like guilt or fear. We’re also told autonomous motivation is more likely to lead to long-term adherence to treatment.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Questions 9-12 9) What a frustrating situation! We’re told researchers are testing a new cancer drug that they deem effective, but other scientists cannot replicate the findings. We want to explain a possible reason for this unfortunate lack of replicability of the original results. We can go through the four explanations listed as answer choices, define each one, and decide which is the most likely explanation for the lack of replicability of the original results.
10) No tricky verbiage here; this is a basic standalone question that relies on knowing the function of the retina. The retina is the thin layer of cells at the back of the eyeball where light is converted into neural signals sent to the brain. There are two types of photoreceptors in the retina: rods and cones, named for their general appearance. Rods are strongly photosensitive and are located in the outer edges of the retina. They detect dim light and are used primarily for peripheral and nighttime vision. Cones are weakly photosensitive and are located near the center of the retina. They respond to bright light, and their primary role is in daytime, color vision.
11) This is a standalone question that focuses on a sociology concept: the glass escalator. The glass escalator is a direct contrast to the glass ceiling which suggests there is an unofficial barrier to advancement in a profession. The glass ceiling specifically suggests women are not able to advance in their profession as quickly and regularly as their male counterparts. The glass escalator focuses on the other side and says that men are promoted and advance in their profession much more quickly than their female counterparts, specifically in traditionally female-dominated industries.
12) The test-maker provides us with a setup and some general results about research. We’re told the supplies given to the participants and what the participants did with these supplies. The test-maker tells us only a few participants used a seemingly good solution to the task they were asked to do (use the matchbox as a candle holder). We can go through our four answer choices and define each one and see which option correctly identifies the barrier to problem solving the participants experienced.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 3 13) This is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out some key information. The author tells us in Paragraph 1, “Surveys were mailed to 398 employees of an organization who were classified as either managers or assistants. The survey was returned by 42% of the sample (64 managers and 104 assistants).” We want to go through our four answer choices and note a concern about the study given this information and the response rate.
14) Similar to our last question, this is another passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out some key information. The test-maker is simply asking us about the results of the research here. Attribution is the process by which individuals explain the cause of behavior and events. They are classified as either internal or external. Internal attributions include dispositional or personality-based explanations; external attributions emphasize situational factors. The author tells us in Paragraph 3, “When participants made in-group judgments and the behavior outcomes were negative, participants mainly attributed the behavior to situational factors. When participants made out-group judgments and the outcomes were positive, participants mainly attributed the behavior to situational factors.” We want to know how these would change during intense group conflict between managers and assistants.
15) To answer this question, we can consider the findings in the study which the author breaks down in Paragraph 3. We want to use these findings to pick an answer choice consistent with what we expect when people make attributions for their own behavior. Attributions are classified as either internal or external. Internal attributions include dispositional or personality-based explanations; external attributions emphasize situational factors. The passage tells us the participants showed a self-serving bias. The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to attribute internal factors for success and external factors for failure, particularly when someone is explaining their own behavior. The author tells us in Paragraph 3, “When participants made in-group judgments and the behavior outcomes were negative, participants mainly attributed the behavior to situational factors. When participants made out-group judgments and the outcomes were positive, participants mainly attributed the behavior to situational factors.”
16) This is a similar question to others we’ve seen in this question set which makes sense because we’re focused on the findings of the study in the passage. We’re given a hypothetical in the question stem that talks about team-building. If the consultant’s team-building activities are successful, we would most likely see one of the four answer choices based on what we read in the passage. Recall that people have the tendency to attribute internal factors for success and external factors for failure. In other words, people attribute positive outcomes to dispositional factors and negative outcomes to situational factors. We saw in the passage that group membership can influence how people attribute positive and negative outcomes. The consultant would ideally break down any barriers and get the managers and assistants to feel they are part of the same team; managers and assistants would more often attribute positive outcomes to dispositional factors and negative outcomes to situational factors.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 4 17) This is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out some key information. The author tells us in Paragraph 3 that these programs are designed to enhance socialization for school-aged children and some include the added goal of increasing mindfulness skills and strategies. Piaget focused on children’s cognitive growth. His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages. Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational period. We’re going to decide who will benefit the most from the programs described in the passage according to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
18) Similar to the last question in this set, this is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out key information. The author talks about the difficulties in implementing programs to help with social skills training in Paragraph 5: The author introduces why some community members might be resistant to change, and also explains how their perspectives may change. We’re specifically told, “Critics of social skills training programs might be swayed if the trainers work pro bono, purely for the joy of enacting change and helping others.” We’re also told additional scientific evidence may sway perspectives. This paragraph is going to be key to answering our question. We can go through our four choices, define each one, and then find the answer choice that best answers our question.
19) This is a fairly typical question setup for the behavioral section of the exam. We’re asked about something in the passage from a specific perspective or school of thought. That means we not only have to have a good understanding of what we read in the passage, but also a mastery of the vocabulary in this section. This question asks about the sociological perspective of labeling theory. Labeling theory concerns itself not with the normal roles that define our lives, but with those very special roles that society provides for deviant behavior, called deviant roles, stigmatic roles, or social stigma. Labeling theory hypothesizes that the labels applied to individuals influence their behavior; the application of negative or stigmatizing labels promotes deviant behavior.
20) This is another passage-based question but the author explicitly tells us we’re answering this question based on what we read in Paragraph 3: The author tells us in Paragraph 3 that these programs are designed to enhance socialization for school-aged children and some include the added goal of increasing mindfulness skills and strategies. Socialization is the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need as productive citizens. To answer this question correctly, we’ll find the answer choice that is consistent with Paragraph 3 and our definition of socialization.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 5 21) This is a passage-based question, but the test-maker explicitly tells us where in the passage we’re looking for the necessary information. In the first sentence of the passage, the author says, “Early studies have shown that the less attraction individuals feel toward a group to which they belong, the less their opinions are affected by the group.” My first impression is this is a direct correlation because the less (or more) attraction individuals feel toward a group to which they belong, the less (or more) their opinions are affected by the group. As one variable increases or decreases, the other variable also increases or decreases accordingly.
22) To answer this question, we can consider where the author talks about ranking of the attributes. We’re told, “Participants were placed in discussion groups. After socializing, participants were presented with a list of attributes and asked to privately rank them in order of importance.” In this question, we’re jumping into a hypothetical situation in which participants discuss their ranking of the attributes with members of their group and found they agreed. Following this agreement, we want to identify the psychological process that is most likely to affect each participant’s opinion. We can define each of the four choices and pick the most likely answer.
23) The author introduces the ranking of attributes in Paragraph 2 and gets into the bogus group consensus in Paragraph 3. The rankings and bogus group consensus will make the participants feel as though their group is defined as one of the four group types given as answer choices. We can define the four groups given as options and find the one that best answers our question.
24) This is a pseudo-standalone question that’s related to the topic presented in the passage, but we’ll answer using our external knowledge. Groups are collections of people who identify and interact with one another and are united in some way. We want to know when attraction and commitment to this group is greatest. That means we’ll need to know about group dynamics and how group dynamics can change. Cohesion in a group usually comes from shared interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties, among other factors. With that in mind, we’ll attack this question similarly to how we attacked the previous questions in this set. We can define each of the four answer choices and find the one that best represents when attraction and commitment to a group is greatest.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Questions 25-28 25) When asked whether a person who is afraid of spiders would be diagnosed as having a psychological disorder, a psychologist replies, “It depends on whether or not this fear interferes with the person’s life.” The psychologist appears to rely most heavily on which criterion of abnormality? This is a classic behavioral standalone question in that it relies on our external knowledge, specifically vocabulary. In order to classify behavior as abnormal, psychologists generally look at 4 criteria: violation of social norms, statistical rarity in the population, personal distress and maladaptiveness. We want to define each of our four answer choices and find the one that is consistent with psychological disorders interfering with one’s life.
26) This is another standalone question that relies on external knowledge, specifically vocabulary. Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development include trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame/doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, and integrity vs despair. Generativity vs Stagnation: When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children.
27) A dopamine antagonist will most likely lead to: This is another standalone question that relies on external knowledge. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is involved in mood, sleep, and learning. It can also suppress appetite and increase pleasure receptors. An antagonist blocks or impedes the regular activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor. We want to which of the four answer choices a dopamine antagonist will most likely lead to. Two of the answer choices deal with schizophrenia, while two deal with Parkinson’s. We can go through some background first: Schizophrenia is a serious and often-debilitating mental illness. The development of schizophrenia is thought to involve malfunctioning dopaminergic neurons and may also involve problems with glutamate signaling. Treatment for the disease usually requires anti-psychotic medications that work by blocking dopamine receptors and decreasing dopamine neurotransmission in the brain. This decrease in dopamine can cause Parkinson’s disease-like symptoms in some patients. While some classes of anti-psychotics can be quite effective at treating the disease, they are not a cure; most patients must remain medicated for the rest of their lives. Parkinson’s disease causes the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra, a midbrain structure that regulates movement. Loss of these neurons causes many symptoms including tremors (shaking of fingers or a limb), slowed movement, speech changes, balance and posture problems, and rigid muscles. The combination of these symptoms often causes a characteristic slow, hunched, shuffling walk. Patients with Parkinson’s disease can also exhibit psychological symptoms, such as dementia or emotional problems.
28) This is a standalone question that is asking us to differentiate between mean and median age. Mean age is a numerical descriptor that’s synonymous with average, while median is synonymous with the middle value. When we have a big difference like we see in our median and mean ages, it’s likely there were a lot of subjects that were much older that skewed the mean higher. The median simply means there were the same number of subjects under the age of 45 than there were over the age of 45. Age 45 is the middle number of the number set.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 6 29) This is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out some key information. We can revisit Paragraph 4. The author says, “Exposure to violent media can also have long-term effects through learning.” This is consistent with our question stem. We’re going to get into the specific effects. The author says, “Specifically, repeated exposure can lead to the observation and reinforcement of aggressive behaviors, the storage of aggressive knowledge structures (such as aggressive expectations or aggressive behavior scripts), and losing responsiveness to aggression.” We’re making a connection between the long-term effects of exposure to violence and our four answer choices. We can briefly describe each one and pick the best answer choice.
30) The test-maker sets up this question by presenting us with a declarative statement: nonviolent video games can alter internal states by causing frustration. We talked about violent media in the passage, but little mention was made of video games specifically. However, given what we read in the passage, we want to explain how nonviolent video games differ from violent video games as situational variables. Remember, nonviolent video games can cause frustration and alter internal states (cognitive states, affective states, and physiological arousal). Three of our answers are going to be applicable to nonviolent video games, but our correct answer is something nonviolent games are NOT likely to do.
31) This is another passage-based question, but the author explicitly tells us we’re answering this question based on what we read in Paragraph 2. We’re going to revisit the example in that paragraph and find the theory of emotion that is most compatible with that example. That means we’ll be relying on our external knowledge to define the four theories of knowledge listed as answer choices. The example in Paragraph 2 is the classmate bumping into the child. A. The James–Lange theory, because it suggests that physiological arousal triggers affective states. The James–Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise as a result of physiological arousal —i.e., that the self-perception of changes in the body produces an emotional experience. B. The Cannon–Bard theory, because it suggests that physiological arousal influences affective states. Cannon–Bard theory argues that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently. According to the Cannon–Bard theory, when you see a venomous snake, you feel fear at exactly the same time that your autonomic nervous system responds. C. The Schachter–Singer theory, because it focuses on the role of cognitive appraisal in influencing affective states. According to the Schacter–Singer theory, emotion results from the interaction between two factors: physiological arousal and cognition. More specifically, this theory claims that physiological arousal is cognitively interpreted within the context of each situation, which ultimately produces the emotional experience. These cognitive interpretations, how a person labels and understands what they are experiencing, are formed based on the person’s past experiences. The child being bumped into involves cognitive interpretation. This is going to be our best answer choice. D. The evolutionary theory, because it focuses on the adaptive functions of affective states in response to threats from the environment. The evolutionary theory of emotion essentially says emotions serve an adaptive role in responses to threats from the environment. This is out of scope in the context of this question as Paragraph 2 does not reference the adaptive functions of affective states. 32) This is a passage-based question that relies on us going back to the passage to pick out some key information. We can revisit Paragraph 4. The author says, “repeated exposure can lead to the observation and reinforcement of aggressive behaviors, the storage of aggressive knowledge structures (such as aggressive expectations or aggressive behavior scripts), and losing responsiveness to aggression.” We’re going to relate the four types of learning given as answer choices to this information from Paragraph 4. A. operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a theory of learning that focuses on changes in an individual’s observable behaviors. In operant conditioning, new or continued behaviors are impacted by new or continued consequences. Reinforcement and punishment are principles of operant conditioning that increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior. The passage explicitly mentions reinforcement of behaviors. B. social learning. Social learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction. The author mentions observation of aggressive behaviors to explain the long-term effects of exposure to media violence. C. classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior. The author does not refer to classical conditioning in the passage. This is going to be our best answer. D. habituation. Habituation is the diminishing of a physiological or emotional response to a frequently repeated stimulus. The author references losing responsiveness to aggression. This is an incorrect answer choice. The passage makes a reference to all of the listed types of learning except answer choice C: classical conditioning. Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 7 33) The author tells us that researchers hypothesized that traditional gender attitudes increase alcohol consumption in young men, while such attitudes reduce consumption in young women. We want to explain how gender socialization affects drinking behavior. This is a pseudo-standalone question that’s related to the topic presented in the passage, but we’ll answer using our external knowledge. Gender socialization is the specific process of learning the cultural norms associated with gender roles, masculinity, and femininity. We’re ultimately looking for an answer that talks about how men and women learn norms and values. Norms can be defined as the shared ways of thinking, feeling, desiring, deciding, and acting, which is observable in regularly repeated behaviors and is adopted because they are assumed to solve problems. Values are culturally-defined standards that serve as broad guidelines for social living.
34) This question is asking about one of the selected variables in the research. We’re given data about the gender role attitude scale, but we’re asked to decide which component of attitude is being measured. The author covers this in Paragraph 2. Specifically, the author says, “Gender role attitudes were measured by coding respondents’ level of agreement or disagreement with statements that assert beliefs about gender and family life, resulting in scores for each respondent on a gender role attitude scale.” Attitude is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. Typically, attitudes are favorable or unfavorable, or positive or negative. They can also be defined as a learned habit for responding to social stimuli. Attitudes form from three components; the affective, behavioral and cognitive. The affective component of attitude relates to a person’s feelings or emotions in their shaping on attitudes to a person or object. If you feel more positive about someone you are more likely to address them in a positive manner. The cognitive component relates to our beliefs and knowledge about someone or a situation that shapes our attitude. For example, if you know dogs bite and this is dangerous you would adapt your attitude to dogs when you see them because of your knowledge of them. The final component is behavioral. This component involves our actions towards a person or situation. For example, if we have a positive behavior at work and there is a positive environment we are more likely to behave in a productive manner.
35) This is a passage that revolves around research, so the test-maker decided to ask us about research designs. The key here is we’re comparing alcohol consumption between groups. In the passage, the author tells us marriage was associated with reduced alcohol consumption for both genders. Researchers compared alcohol consumption for single males and females versus their married counterparts. Researchers would have to utilize a design along the same lines to determine whether the findings hold for same-sex marriage as well. We can go through our four answer choices and see which one would be the best design.
36) This is another passage-related question, but this is a pseudo-standalone question. The question is related to the topic presented in the passage, but we’ll answer using our external knowledge and what we know about research design. Best way to answer this question is go through each of the research designs listed as possible answer choices and define each one. We will find the one that best describes the study in the question stem.
37) This is going to be similar to some of the other questions in this set because we’re asked about something the author tells us in the passage, but we’ll use external knowledge to actually answer the question being asked. We’re told in Paragraph 1, “Research has found gender differences in alcohol consumption among adolescents and young adults. Compared to young women, young men report drinking more often, as well as consuming more alcohol on occasions when they drink.” We’re going to go through the four options presented by the test-maker and see which ones can provide a potential hypothesis for the gender difference in alcohol consumption between young men and women. Our correct answer will not provide a potential hypothesis for the difference.
38) The test-maker provides a possible relationship between alcohol consumption in men and higher testosterone levels. To answer this question, we may need to use Table 1 from the passage that showed the results of the study, so we can pull it up for reference. We’re focused on alcohol consumption and testosterone levels, but our correct answer will ultimately cast doubt about the hypothesis that higher alcohol consumption in men, compared to women, may be related to higher testosterone levels in men.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 8 39) In this question, we’re asked about something the author tells us when covering Study 1, but we’ll use external knowledge to actually answer the question being asked. We’re focused on different types of information that are retrieved from memory. The author says, “The health history asked participants to report physical illnesses, such as asthma, or psychological disorders, such as depression, that they experienced before the age of 18.” We can go through and define the different memory types listed as our potential answer choices. We want to pick the one that is consistent with what the participants are asked to do in Study 1.
40) This is a pseudo-standalone question that’s related to the topic presented in the passage, but we’ll answer using our external knowledge. The author mentions, “Statistical analyses revealed that retrospective reports of depressive symptoms or alcohol dependence were associated with lower income during adulthood.” We essentially want to pick the best way to assess alcohol use from the four options listed.
41) To answer this question, we can go back to Study 2 in the passage and note what the author says about childhood psychological disorders. The author says, “childhood psychological disorders predicted marital instability and were associated with the Big Five personality traits during adulthood.” The Big Five model distills personality traits down to 5 major traits: openness to experience, contentiousness (ie planning, responsibility), extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (ie insecurity, anxiety). We want to find the characteristic that is least likely associated with childhood psychological disorders, or the characteristic that is not one of the 5 major traits. We can quickly glance at our answer choices and find the one that does not fall under openness to new experiences, contentiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The only answer choice listed that is not part of this list is answer choice D: Impulsivity. 42) To answer this question, we can go back to Study 1 in the passage and note what the author says about risk factors for low SES in adulthood. The author says, “Statistical analyses revealed that retrospective reports of depressive symptoms or alcohol dependence were associated with lower income during adulthood.” These are the indicators for lower SES in adulthood that the author mentions in the passage, so we’re looking for an answer choice that is a symptom associated with depressive symptoms or alcohol dependence.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Questions 43-46 43) This is a standalone question that relies on using our external knowledge to find a key term to describe the situation in the question stem. The test-maker provides us with a great visual in the question stem of a two-year-old using the same term (butterfly) for several objects that look similar. We’re going to go through our four answer choices and define each one. We want to find the one that best describes the situation in the question stem.
44) This is a standalone question that’s similar to a lot of the questions in the behavioral section of the exam. We’re going to rely on knowing vocabulary to get to the right answer. The test-maker provides us with a situation: teaching a dog to shake hands, and we want to pick one of the four answer choices listed as the most effective procedure by which to teach the dog. We can start by defining the vocabulary term in each answer choice and picking the best answer.
45) Just like our last question in this set, this is a standalone question that’s similar to a lot of the questions in the behavioral section of the exam. We’re relying on knowing vocabulary to get to the right answer. Depth cues are features of an object that are used by the visual system in the brain to interpret where an object is located in 3-D space. There are some depth cues that are monocular (meaning they require one eye). These include the retinal height of an object (how high up it is in the visual field), whether there is something occluding the object, and how textured an object appears. Three of our answer choices will be monocular depth cues, while our correct answer will not describe a monocular depth cue.
46) Just like our last question in this set, this is a standalone question that’s similar to a lot of the questions in the behavioral section of the exam. We’re relying on our external knowledge, specifically about the amygdala. The amygdala is part of the limbic system and plays a role in processing emotional information and sending that information on to cortical structures. It is an important brain region in responding to fear and research suggests that the amygdala is involved in mood and anxiety disorders. Changes in amygdala structure and function have been found in adolescents who either are at risk for or have been diagnosed with a mood or anxiety disorder. We want an answer choice that is related to emotions like fear.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 9 47) This is a passage-related question that focuses on three disorders discussed in the passage. In Paragraph 1, the author introduces depression, dementia, and alcohol use disorders. Underuse of available healthcare services for depression, dementia, and alcohol use disorders is likely due to one of the four vocabulary terms listed as answer choices here. We can go through each term and find the one that explains the underuse of available healthcare services for these disorders.
48) This is a passage-based question that focuses on one of the three disorders discussed in the passage. We can focus on Paragraph 3 where the author talks about dementia. The author mentions there is likely underreporting of dementia in LMICs and improving dementia surveillance can come in the form of raising public awareness through community-based programs. We want to get into some details; raising public awareness about dementia in LMICs would most likely take the form of our correct answer. Let’s go through our four options and find the community-based program that would best raise public awareness.
49) This is a passage-based question that, once again, focuses on one of the three disorders discussed in the passage. Previous question we focused on dementia, now we’re going into depression. We can focus on Paragraph 2 where the author talks about depression. The author says, “Studies suggest that structural factors, such as poverty or racial/ethnic minority status, are significant determinants of depression in LMICs.” We’re going to go through each of our four answer choices and define them-we ultimately want to find the one most consistent with dealing with structural factors like poverty or racial/ethnic minority status.
50) This is the less-commonly seen setup to a question in the behavioral section of the exam. Often, the test-maker will reference something in the passage and we are asked to relate it to a vocabulary word: some psychology or sociology topic. In this case, we’re doing the opposite. We’re given a vocabulary word (medicalization) and we’re asked which passage statement it is most relevant to. Medicalization is the effort to describe a type of behavior as a symptom of an underlying illness that should be treated by a doctor. For example, there is an increasing effort to medicalize addiction and treat it as a disease of the brain. Medicalization has also been criticized as an attempt on the part of the powerful to control behaviors that are inconsistent with societal demands. Ultimately, we can say medicalization involves considering behaviors that weren’t previously medical conditions, as medical conditions.
51) This is a passage-based question that, once again, focuses on one of the three disorders discussed in the passage. Previously we had a question that focused on dementia and a question that focused on depression. Now we’re jumping into a question that’s focusing on Paragraph 4 and excessive alcohol use. We’re jumping into the very last part of the passage where the author says, “excessive alcohol use is also associated with preventable injuries, which are more likely to result from binge drinking than alcohol dependence.” This is attributing preventable injuries to an effect of alcohol use. We can define each of our four answer choices and decide which is the correct effect.
52) The best way to answer behavioral questions that are set up this way is to go back to the passage and find the relevant information we need to answer the question. We will ultimately use our general knowledge to define the four terms given as answer choices and find the one that is most likely experienced by the caregivers. At the end of Paragraph 3, the author says, “Support for family caregivers of dementia patients is also essential in order to help caregivers balance the demands of caregiving with their other social responsibilities.” We want an answer choice that is consistent with the need to balance the demands of caregiving and other social responsibilities.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Passage 10 53) This question is going to involve a hybrid of information we’ll get from the passage, and general content information. From the passage, we can focus on Paragraph 3 where the author talks about social capital being operationalized by dividing it into three component measures. One of these measures is collective efficacy. The author says, “Collective efficacy assessed respondents’ perception that members of their community were likely to help one another out.” We’ll keep this description in mind and also define self-efficacy which is a topic on AAMC’s content outline. Self-efficacy is a belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness. It’s how capable we believe we are of doing things and reaching specific goals. We’re going to pick an answer choice that’s consistent with both of these descriptions, but also consistent with the passage.
54) This is a passage-based question that relies on specific details from Table 1. We can pull up Table 1 and the description of Table 1 here We’re asked which variable is associated with a lower likelihood of having a mammogram, and the description tells us likelihood is expressed as odds ratios. There is increased likelihood for values over 1.00 and decreased likelihood for values below 1.00. We’re also told right below the table that an asterisk next to these odds indicates a statistically significant result. We can go through each of the variables listed as answer choices and answer according to what we see in Table 1.
55) This is a passage-based question that relies on specific details from Table 1. We’re going to attack this question similarly to how attacked the previous question in the set. We can pull up Table 1 and the description of Table 1 here: We’re asked which component of social capital is most likely to affect mammography usage. The paragraph right above Table 1 tells us likelihood is expressed as odds ratios. There is increased likelihood for values over 1.00 and decreased likelihood for values below 1.00. We’re also told right below the table that an asterisk next to these odds indicates a statistically significant result. We’re essentially looking at the three options provided and finding the one that is furthest away from 1.00. The odds ratio that is furthest from 1.00 means the variable is most likely to affect mammography usage.
Answer choice B correctly lists Option II as the component of social capital that is most likely to affect mammography usage. 56) This is a passage-based question and the author begins by telling us a researcher proposes an alternative to the hypothesis in the passage. In the passage, researchers were interested in the association between social capital and the odds of having had a mammogram in the past year because they hypothesized that mammography rates are partly due to social capital. This alternative hypothesis draws on the concept of institutional discrimination. Institutional discrimination targets specific, easily stereotyped, and generalizable attributes of individuals, such as race and gender. It often exists within governments, though it can also occur in any other type of social institution. Some countries around the world practice some form of institutionalized discrimination. For example, in some countries, women cannot vote, drive, or work certain jobs. We want to identify a prediction that is most likely in an alternative hypothesis that draws on this institutional discrimination.
Exam 4 P/S Solutions: Questions 57-59 57) This is a standalone question that’s similar to a lot of the questions in the behavioral section of the exam. We’re going to rely on knowing vocabulary to get to the right answer. We’re focused on immigrant health in this question. After moving from one culture to another, it takes time to learn a new set of cultural norms and acceptable behaviors. The process to acclimate to a new culture is called assimilation. Assimilation can occur in a variety of ways, including language acquisition and learning about the social roles and rules of the newly adopted culture. Eventually, the individual or immigrant group becomes a part of the new culture. The researcher is applying assimilation to immigrant health. We want to pick the answer choice that represents what the researcher expects about an immigrant group’s life expectancy.
58) This is a standalone question that’s similar to a lot of the questions in the behavioral section of the exam. We’re going to rely on knowing vocabulary to get to the right answer. We’re focused on symbolic interactionism. Symbolic Interactionism focuses on small scale perspectives with small interactions between individuals. Through our interactions, we assign different meaning to objects and events, and these are different perspectives for different people. Social interactionism explains how individuals act in society, and can be expanded to look at the interactions of larger social groups to explain social change.
59) The organ of Corti is a structure in the cochlea of the inner ear which produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations. The organ of Corti is composed of hair cells held in place above the basilar membrane with their exposed short, hair-like stereocilia contacting or embedded in the tectorial membrane above them. All of the stereocilia are mechanoreceptors, and when bent by vibrations they respond by opening a gated ion channel. Said differently, mechanoreceptors in hair cells of the inner ear detect vibrations conducted from the eardrum.
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Which statement best describes its usefulness in deciding whether a given situation is abnormal?
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