Working in small groups, expand on the list of barriers to critical thinking presented in the text. come up with examples of each barrier and explain how they get in the way of critical thinking.

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First, let’s briefly examine some barriers to critical thinking.

Take another look at the visual summary below on critical and analytical thinking, which was introduced at the end of Session 3. Note the warning sign next to the ‘black pit’ to the lower right of this figure.

Figure 1A visual summary of critical and analytical thinking

We have provided you with a larger version of this image in PDF format [Tip: hold Ctrl and click a link to open it in a new tab. (Hide tip)] .

What are the common pitfalls or barriers to thinking critically and analytically? Some of these were highlighted in the visual summary, and include:

Misunderstanding. This can arise due to language or cultural differences, a lack of awareness of the ‘processes’ involved, or a misunderstanding that critical thinking means making ‘negative’ comments (as discussed in Sessions 3 and 4).
Reluctance to critique the ‘norm’ or experts in a field and consider alternative views (feeling out of your ‘comfort zone’ or fearful of being wrong).
Lack of detailed knowledge. Superficial knowledge (not having read deeply enough around the subject).
Wanting to know the answers without having to ask questions.

Why do you think being aware of these potential pitfalls is important?

As a critical and reflective thinker, you will need to be aware of the barriers, acknowledge the challenges they may present, and overcome these as best you can. This starts with an understanding of expectations. Some students feel anxious about questioning the work of experts. Critical thinking does not mean that you are challenging someone’s work or telling them that they are wrong, but encourages a deeper understanding, a consideration of alternative views, and engagement in thought, discourse or research that informs your independent judgement. At postgraduate level you will also need to read widely around a subject in order to engage effectively with critical and analytical thinking, and to ask questions: there are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers, only supported arguments. This is at the heart of postgraduate study.

Critical thinking encourages you to be constructive, by considering the strengths and weaknesses of a claim and differing sides to an argument. It helps you to clarify points, encourages deeper thought, and allows you to determine whether information that you come across is accurate and reliable. This helps you to form your own judgement, and drives research forward.

People can find it difficult to think critically, irrespective of their education or intellectual ability. The key to understanding critical thinking is not only knowing and making sure that you understand the process, but also being able to put this into practice by applying your knowledge.

Critical and reflective thinking are complex and lifelong skills that you continue to develop as part of your personal and professional growth. In your everyday life, you may also come across those who do not exercise critical thinking, and this might impact on decisions that affect you. It is important to recognise this, and to use critical and reflective thinking to ensure that your own view is informed by reasoned judgement, supported by evidence.

Take another look at the visual summary. You will see two aspects to critical thinking: one focusing on the disposition of the person engaged in critical and reflective thinking, and the other concerning their abilities. Let’s focus here on dispositions. At a personal level, barriers to critical thinking can arise through:

an over-reliance on feelings or emotions
self-centred or societal/cultural-centred thinking (conformism, dogma and peer-pressure)
unconscious bias, or selective perception
an inability to be receptive to an idea or point of view that differs from your own (close-mindedness)
unwarranted assumptions or lack of relevant information
fear of being wrong (anxious about being taken out of your ‘comfort zone’)
poor communication skills or apathy
lack of personal honesty.

Be aware that thinking critically is not simply adhering to a formula. For example, reflect on the following questions:

How can you communicate with those who do not actively engage with critical thinking and are unwilling to engage in a meaningful dialogue?
How would you react or respond when you experience a lack of critical thinking in the media, amongst your own family members, colleagues at work, or on your course?

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There are many ways to articulate the concept of critical thinking, yet every substantive conception must contain certain core elements. Consider these brief conceptualizations of critical thinking...

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness..."

~ A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, presented at the 8th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform, 1987. (Click here for a more complete version.)

"Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fairminded way. People who think critically attempt, with consistent and conscious effort, to live rationally, reasonably, and empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that enable them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest.

They strive to improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so. They strive never to think simplistically about complicated issues and always to consider the rights and needs of relevant others. They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice toward self-improvement. They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living, because they realize that many unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world."

~ Linda Elder, September, 2007

{"id":"2269","title":"Our Conception of Critical Thinking...","author":"","content":"There are many ways to articulate the concept of critical thinking, yet every substantive conception must contain certain core elements.  Consider these brief conceptualizations of critical thinking... <img src=\"/image/pimage/Library-stack1.jpg\" border=\"0\" alt=\"getting started with critical thinking\" hspace=\"14\" vspace=\"8\" align=\"left\" />\r\n\"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness...\"\r\n<div>~ A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, presented at the 8th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform, 1987. <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/define_critical_thinking.cfm\">(Click here for a more complete version.)</a></div>\r\n \"Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fairminded way. People who think critically attempt, with consistent and conscious effort, to live rationally, reasonably, and empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that enable them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest.\r\nThey strive to improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so. They strive never to think simplistically about complicated issues and always to consider the rights and needs of relevant others. They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice toward self-improvement. They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living, because they realize that many unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world.\"\r\n<div>~ Linda Elder, September, 2007</div>","public_access":"1","public_downloads":"1","sku":"","files":[],"images":[]}

The Problem:

Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our lives and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.

A Brief Definition:

Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it.

The Result:

A well-cultivated critical thinker:

raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively;
comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.

Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities, and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.

Read more about our concept of critical thinking.

{"id":"2270","title":"Why Critical Thinking?","author":"","content":"<img style=\"float: right;\" src=\"/image/pimage/Thinking-Man1.jpg\" alt=\"\" />\r\nThe Problem:\r\nEveryone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our lives and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.\r\nA Brief Definition:\r\nCritical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it. The Result: \r\n A well-cultivated critical thinker:\r\n<ul>\r\n<li>raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;</li>\r\n<li>gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively;</li>\r\n<li>comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;</li>\r\n<li>thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and</li>\r\n<li>communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.</li>\r\n</ul>\r\nCritical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities, and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/ourConceptCT.cfm\">Read more about our concept of critical thinking</a>.","public_access":"1","public_downloads":"1","sku":"","files":[],"images":[]}

Our conception of critical thinking is based on the substantive approach developed by Dr. Richard Paul and his colleagues at the Center and Foundation for Critical Thinking over multiple decades. It is relevant to every subject, discipline, and profession, and to reasoning through the problems of everyday life. It entails five essential dimensions of critical thinking:

The analysis of thought.
The assessment of thought.
The dispositions of thought.
The skills and abilities of thought.
The obstacles or barriers to critical thought.

At the left is an overview of the first three dimensions. In sum, the elements or structures of thought enable us to "take our thinking apart" and analyze it. The intellectual standards are used to assess and evaluate the elements. The intellectual traits are dispositions of mind embodied by the fairminded critical thinker. To cultivate the mind, we need command of these essential dimensions, and we need to consistently apply them as we think through the many problems and issues in our lives.

{"id":"2271","title":"The Essential Dimensions of Critical Thinking","author":"","content":"<img style=\"float: left;\" src=\"/image/pimage/Standards-Elems-Traits.jpg\" alt=\"\" />\r\nOur conception of critical thinking is based on the <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/professionalDev/the-state-ct-today.cfm\">substantive approach</a> developed by Dr. Richard Paul and his colleagues at the Center and Foundation for Critical Thinking over multiple decades. It is relevant to every subject, discipline, and profession, and to reasoning through the problems of everyday life. It entails five essential dimensions of critical thinking:\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><ol>\r\n<li>The analysis of thought.</li>\r\n<li>The assessment of thought.</li>\r\n<li>The dispositions of thought.</li>\r\n<li>The skills and abilities of thought.</li>\r\n<li>The obstacles or barriers to critical thought.</li>\r\n</ol></td>\r\n</tr>\r\n</tbody>\r\n</table>\r\nAt the left is an overview of the first three dimensions. In sum, the elements or structures of thought enable us to \"take our thinking apart\" and analyze it. The intellectual standards are used to assess and evaluate the elements. The intellectual traits are dispositions of mind embodied by the fairminded critical thinker. To cultivate the mind, we need command of these essential dimensions, and we need to consistently apply them as we think through the many problems and issues in our lives.\r\n ","public_access":"1","public_downloads":"1","sku":"","files":[],"images":[]}

To learn more about the elements of thought and how to apply the intellectual standards, check out our interactive model. Simply click on the link below and use your mouse to explore each concept.

Open the "Elements and Standards" Online Learning Model.

Why the Analysis of Thinking Is Important

If you want to think well, you must understand at least the rudiments of thought, the most basic structures out of which all thinking is made. You must learn how to take thinking apart.

Analyzing the Logic of a Subject

When we understand the elements of reasoning, we realize that all subjects, all disciplines, have a fundamental logic defined by the structures of thought embedded within them. Therefore, to lay bare a subject’s most fundamental logic, we should begin with these questions:

What is the main purpose or goal of studying this subject? What are people in this field trying to accomplish?
What kinds of questions do they ask? What kinds of problems do they try to solve?
What sorts of information or data do they gather?
What types of inferences do they usually draw? What types of judgments do they typically make? (Judgments about…)
How do they go about gathering information in ways that are distinctive to this field?
What are the most basic ideas, concepts, or theories in this field?
What do professionals in this field take for granted or assume?
How should studying this field affect my view of the world?
What viewpoint is fostered in this field?
What implications follow from studying this discipline? How are the products of this field used in everyday life? How might they be used in ways they are not currently?

{"id":"2272","title":"The Elements of Reasoning and Intellectual Standards","author":"","content":"<img style=\"float: right;\" src=\"/image/pimage/CTModel1-starter.jpg\" alt=\"\" />\r\n To learn more about the elements of thought and how to apply the intellectual standards, check out our interactive model. Simply click on the link below and use your mouse to explore each concept. \r\n<div><a style=\"font-weight: bold;\" href=\"javascript:void(window.open('https://www.criticalthinking.org/CTmodel/CTModel1.cfm','CTModel','resizable=yes,location=no,menubar=yes,scrollbars=yes,status=no,toolbar=no,fullscreen=no,dependent=no,width=840,height=680,left=10,top=10'))\">Open the \"Elements and Standards\" Online Learning </a><a style=\"font-weight: bold;\" href=\"javascript:void(window.open('https://www.criticalthinking.org/CTmodel/CTModel1.cfm','CTModel','resizable=yes,location=no,menubar=yes,scrollbars=yes,status=no,toolbar=no,fullscreen=no,dependent=no,width=840,height=680,left=10,top=10'))\">Model.</a></div>\r\n Why the Analysis of Thinking Is Important If you want to think well, you must understand at least the rudiments of thought, the most basic structures out of which all thinking is made. You must learn how to take thinking apart. Analyzing the Logic of a Subject When we understand the elements of reasoning, we realize that all subjects, all disciplines, have a fundamental logic defined by the structures of thought embedded within them. Therefore, to lay bare a subject’s most fundamental logic, we should begin with these questions:\r\n<img src=\"/image/pimage/Woman-chalkboard.jpg\" border=\"0\" alt=\"\" hspace=\"10\" vspace=\"8\" align=\"left\" />\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n<li> What is the main purpose or goal of studying this subject? What are people in this field trying to accomplish?</li>\r\n<li> What kinds of questions do they ask? What kinds of problems do they try to solve?</li>\r\n<li> What sorts of information or data do they gather?</li>\r\n<li> What types of inferences do they usually draw? What types of judgments do they typically make? (Judgments about…)</li>\r\n<li> How do they go about gathering information in ways that are distinctive to this field?</li>\r\n<li> What are the most basic ideas, concepts, or theories in this field?</li>\r\n<li> What do professionals in this field take for granted or assume?</li>\r\n<li> How should studying this field affect my view of the world?</li>\r\n<li> What viewpoint is fostered in this field?</li>\r\n<li> What implications follow from studying this discipline? How are the products of this field used in everyday life? How might they be used in ways they are not currently?</li>\r\n</ul>\r\n</td>\r\n</tr>\r\n</tbody>\r\n</table>","public_access":"1","public_downloads":"1","sku":"","files":[],"images":[]}

While most critical thinking concepts are intuitive, to integrate and apply these concepts consistently and rationally takes concerted effort, study, and reflection. Just as professional athletes or musicians must practice to master their sport or art, so too must thinkers practice to master their minds. We invite you to return to our website often and explore the resources available to assist you in developing and cultivating your thinking.

The Critical Thinking Bookstore

Our online bookstore houses numerous books and teacher's manuals, Thinker's Guides, videos, and other educational materials.

Learn From Our Fellows and Scholars

Watch our Event Calendar, which provides an overview of all upcoming conferences and academies hosted by the

Utilizing this Website

This website contains large amounts research and an online library of articles, both of which are freely available to the public. We also invite you to become a member of the Critical Thinking Community, where you will gain access to more tools and materials. If you cannot locate a resource on a specific topic or concept, try searching for it using our Search Tool. The Search Tool is at the upper-right of every page on the website.

{"id":"2273","title":"Going Deeper...","author":"","content":"<img style=\"float: right;\" src=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/image/pimage/iStock_book.jpg\" alt=\"\" /> While most critical thinking concepts are intuitive, to integrate and apply these concepts consistently and rationally takes concerted effort, study, and reflection. Just as professional athletes or musicians must practice to master their sport or art, so too must thinkers practice to master their minds. We invite you to return to our website often and explore the resources available to assist you in developing and cultivating your thinking. <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/bookstore/index.cfm\"><img src=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/image/pimage/iStock_socrates3.jpg\" border=\"0\" alt=\"Join the Critical Thinking Community\" hspace=\"5\" vspace=\"8\" align=\"left\" /></a> \r\n The Critical Thinking Bookstore \r\n<a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/bookstore/index.cfm\">Our online bookstore</a> houses numerous <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/store/catalogs/books/214\">books and teacher's manuals</a>, <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/store/catalogs/thinkers-guides/224\">Thinker's Guides</a>, <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/store/catalogs/videos/215\">videos</a>, and other <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/store/catalogs/materials/217\">educational materials</a>. \r\n \r\nLearn From Our Fellows and Scholars \r\nWatch our <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/conference/index.cfm\">Event Calendar</a>, which provides an overview of all upcoming conferences and academies hosted by the Foundation for Critical Thinking. Clicking an entry on the Event Calendar will bring up that event's details, and the option to register. For those interested in online learning, the Foundation offers <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/online-courses-for-instructors/574/\">accredited online courses in critical thinking</a> for both educators and the general public, as well as an <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/online-critical-thinking-basic-concepts-test/679\">online test for evaluating basic comprehension of critical thinking concepts</a>. We are in the process of developing more online learning tools and tests to offer the community. \r\n \r\nUtilizing this Website\r\nThis website contains large amounts <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/research/index.cfm\">research</a> and an <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/index-of-articles/1021/\">online library of articles</a>, both of which are freely available to the public. We also invite you to become a member of the <a href=\"https://www.criticalthinking.org/courses/OL_CT_Membership.cfm\">Critical Thinking Community</a>, where you will gain access to more tools and materials.  If you cannot locate a resource on a specific topic or concept, try searching for it using our Search Tool. The Search Tool is at the upper-right of every page on the website. ","public_access":"1","public_downloads":"1","sku":"","files":[],"images":[]}