One of the most common issues teachers face is keeping their students motivated and aware of their own cognitive processes during learning experiences. This is because student comprehension becomes more difficult if students lack the motivation to remain present and engaged in the construction of their knowledge. If left unaddressed, this lack
of motivation can lead to poor academic performance. Another factor that can impact student comprehension and performance is metacognition. Metacognition refers to an individual’s awareness and critical analysis of their own thought processes and cognitive ability. It is an important determiner of student performance, because if students are aware of their own comprehension and cognitive processes, they are better positioned to revise or discontinue them when needed. There are two types of motivation that may influence how engaged students are in a learning experience and the value they hope to or should derive out of it: Bain (2004) identifies numerous research-based strategies that teachers can use to motivate their students. These include:
Grit and PersistenceGrit and persistence can have a significant impact on student well-being, performance, and motivation. Angela Lee Duckworth and Lauren Eskreis-Winkler (2013) define grit as the hard work or effort and persistence an individual needs to pursue and achieve long-term goals in spite of failure, adversity, and stagnated progress. The authors also found that individuals who possess natural talents for or show innate competency in certain fields sometimes display less grit, which may impact the stamina with which they pursue long-term goals. It seems, therefore, that grit and persistence may in some cases serve as better measures of academic success and performance than ability alone. Through their research, Duckworth and Eskreis-Winkler have found that, as individuals mature and progress through adulthood, their ability to persist at tasks increases. This may be due to increased appreciation of hard work and persistence. Alternatively, this phenomenon may also be the product of continued identity formation, or increased cognitive control compared to childhood. The more individuals explore and are exposed to various professions and areas of study, the more attuned they become to their own desired career paths. Once these are identified, individuals can commit and spend time and effort nurturing their skills in these areas (Duckworth & Eskreis-Winkler, 2013). This presence of grit can then be more easily identified and measured by analyzing behavioral mechanisms with which it is associated. One of these mechanisms is deliberate practice, which was touched on in the previous unit of this module. Through a study they conducted around the performance of children in a national spelling bee, Duckworth and Eskreis-Winkler (2013) found that students who measured higher in grit engaged in more hours of deliberate practice. It was also these students who performed better in the spelling bee. This research supports the idea that grit is linked to achievement (Duckworth & Eskreis-Winkler, 2013). Students who are committed to learning, regardless of potential adverse circumstances, stand to gain more from their education. As such, it would be helpful if you, as a teacher, knew how to foster or cultivate this trait. Although research on this topic is ongoing, Duckworth and Eskreis-Winkler (2013) argue that grit may be related to students having growth mindsets. A growth mindset refers to the belief that intelligence and academic ability is not fixed, but rather that it can grow and change over time. Growth and fixed mindsets are touched on in greater detail in Module 7; however, at this stage it is worth noting that some studies have shown positive associations between the presence of growth mindsets and grit in students. This suggests that grit may be better fostered in students with a growth mindset (Duckworth & Eskreis-Winkler, 2013). Based on this research, it may be valuable for teachers to instill in students a growth mindset, which is characterized by viewing failures and setbacks as learning opportunities, thus shaping students with more grit and motivation (Duckworth & Eskreis-Winkler, 2013). The Role of EmotionEmotion is one the most significant intrinsic factors that can affect student motivation and performance. The model of self-regulation explained in this section is premised on the idea that individuals make decisions and select behaviors that will help them achieve identified goals. This model is made up of three processes. Each of these processes is discussed in turn below. Section 5.2 then looks at the role emotion plays in each of these processes.
In its original form, the cybernetic cycle of behavior, TOTE, does not explicitly account for the complexity of human emotions and behavior. It is also beyond the scope of these notes to explore in detail how human emotions impact motivation. However, as teachers, it is important to be aware that emotions may both positively or negatively affect student motivation and performance. Your role is therefore to encourage students to set broad, personal goals that speak to their passions and interests and will motivate them to remain steadfast and unwavering in their pursuit. These goals and this mindset may then motivate students to invest and see the value in their academic journeys. Ultimately, part of your role as a teacher is to understand that your students are not homogenous and will inevitably have diverse interests and goals, and to acknowledge how you may adequately support each student. The Overconfidence EffectThe overconfidence effect is a phenomenon that can result in the demotivation of previously-motivated students. While grit and high self-efficacy can lead to increased motivation in students, it can also be the case that excessively high feelings of self-efficacy (overconfidence) can have a detrimental effect on motivation (Moore & Healy, 2008). Moore and Healy (2008) define overconfidence as referring to when:
In such instances, the observed (objective) ability is misaligned with their perceived ability. Through their research, Moore and Healy (2008) have found that instances of overprecision occur more often than overestimation and overplacement. Additionally, when overprecision appears alongside overestimation or overplacement, it minimizes the scope of these two types of overconfidence. An example of overconfidence is the planning fallacy. This refers to when a person underestimates the time it will take them to complete a task or reach a goal. Individuals who are unable to complete a task in the time they have allocated are overconfident in their task-completing abilities (within that given time frame). Individuals who are overconfident (or subject to the planning fallacy) may set goals for themselves that they are unable to achieve, which may lower their confidence in their abilities, leading to demotivation (Buehler, Griffin & Ross, 1994). Formative and summative assessments provide students with the opportunity to constantly gauge their objective skill in an area as it relates to their perceived skill, thus providing them with a clearer measure of their ability. Students can then use the results of these assessments to determine if and how they can improve their academic performance to reach their imagined ability or desired skill level. Alternatively, students may also use these assessments to set goals that are attainable and in alignment with their current skill level. Ultimately, by providing frequent opportunities for students to measure their ability, you are better enabling them to create goals that they know they can achieve, which will ensure they remain motivated in their pursuit of said goals. Which of the following motivating forces have the strongest performance effect?The motivating force with the strongest performance effect is the perception of equity. Employees who feel a sense of equity on the job are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors, particularly when those behaviors aid the organization.
Which of the following would be characterized as an extrinsic motivation?In extrinsic motivation, rewards or other incentives — like praise, fame, or money — are used as motivation for specific activities. Unlike intrinsic motivation, external factors drive this form of motivation. Being paid to do a job is an example of extrinsic motivation.
What type of motivation is involved when an employee finds internal satisfaction in doing a job well?Intrinsic motivation is when you are motivated by personal satisfaction or enjoyment instead of external factors like reward or punishment. There are ways to make tasks more intrinsically motivating.
What theory asserts that a person's motivation is based on what he or she considers to be fair when compared to others?J. Stacey Adams' equity theory is a process model of motivation. It says that the level of reward we receive, compared to our own sense of our contribution, affects our motivation. The theory considers the concept of equality and fairness, as well as the importance of comparison to others.
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