What changes in his pre practice meals or snacks would you recommend to Greg to improve his performance?

Scott BR, Lockie RG, Knight TJ, Clark AC, De Jonge XAKJ: A comparison of methods to quantify the in-season training load of professional soccer players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013, 8: 195-202.
PubMed Google Scholar
Kleiner SM, Bazzarre TL, Litchford MD: Metabolic profiles, diet, and health practices of championship male and female bodybuilders. J Am Diet Assoc. 1990, 90: 962-967.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Sandoval WM, Heyward VH: Food selection patterns of bodybuilders. Int J Sport Nutr. 1991, 1: 61-68.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Bamman MM, Hunter GR, Newton LE, Roney RK, Khaled MA: Changes in body composition, diet, and strength of bodybuilders during the 12 weeks prior to competition. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1993, 33: 383-391.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Lambert CP, Frank LL, Evans WJ: Macronutrient considerations for the sport of bodybuilding. Sports Med. 2004, 34: 317-327. 10.2165/00007256-200434050-00004.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Maestu J, Eliakim A, Jurimae J, Valter I, Jurimae T: Anabolic and catabolic hormones and energy balance of the male bodybuilders during the preparation for the competition. J Strength Cond Res. 2010, 24: 1074-1081. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181cb6fd3.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hall KD: What is the required energy deficit per unit weight loss?. Int J Obes. 2007, 32: 573-576.
Article Google Scholar
MacLean PS, Bergouignan A, Cornier M-A, Jackman MR: Biology's response to dieting: the impetus for weight regain. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011, 301: R581-R600. 10.1152/ajpregu.00755.2010.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Camps SG, Verhoef SP, Westerterp KR: Weight loss, weight maintenance, and adaptive thermogenesis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013, 97: 990-994. 10.3945/ajcn.112.050310.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Johannsen DL, Knuth ND, Huizenga R, Rood JC, Ravussin E, Hall KD: Metabolic slowing with massive weight loss despite preservation of fat-free mass. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012, 97: 2489-2496. 10.1210/jc.2012-1444.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Keys A, University of Minnesota. Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene: The Biology Of Human Starvation. 1950, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
Google Scholar
Trexler E, Smith-Ryan A, Norton L: Metabolic adaptation to weight loss: implications for the athlete. J Int Soc Sport Nutr. 2014, 11: 7-10.1186/1550-2783-11-7.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Garthe I, Raastad T, Refsnes PE, Koivisto A, Sundgot-Borgen J: Effect of two different weight-loss rates on body composition and strength and power-related performance in elite athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2011, 21: 97-104.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Forbes GB: Body fat content influences the body composition response to nutrition and exercise. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000, 904: 359-365.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hall KD: Body fat and fat-free mass inter-relationships: Forbes's theory revisited. Br J Nutr. 2007, 97: 1059-1063. 10.1017/S0007114507691946.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Mero AA, Huovinen H, Matintupa O, Hulmi JJ, Puurtinen R, Hohtari H, Karila T: Moderate energy restriction with high protein diet results in healthier outcome in women. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2010, 7: 4-10.1186/1550-2783-7-4.
PubMed Central PubMed Article CAS Google Scholar
Sandoval WM, Heyward VH, Lyons TM: Comparison of body composition, exercise and nutritional profiles of female and male body builders at competition. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1989, 29: 63-70.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Walberg-Rankin J, Edmonds CE, Gwazdauskas FC: Diet and weight changes of female bodybuilders before and after competition. Int J Sport Nutr. 1993, 3: 87-102.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Withers RT, Noell CJ, Whittingham NO, Chatterton BE, Schultz CG, Keeves JP: Body composition changes in elite male bodybuilders during preparation for competition. Aust J Sci Med Sport. 1997, 29: 11-16.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
van der Ploeg GE, Brooks AG, Withers RT, Dollman J, Leaney F, Chatterton BE: Body composition changes in female bodybuilders during preparation for competition. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2001, 55: 268-277. 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601154.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Newton LE, Hunter GR, Bammon M, Roney RK: Changes in psychological state and self-reported diet during various phases of training in competitive bodybuilders. J Strength Cond Res. 1993, 7: 153-158.
Google Scholar
Butterfield GE: Whole-body protein utilization in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987, 19: S157-S165.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Lemon PW: Beyond the zone: protein needs of active individuals. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000, 19: 513S-521S. 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718974.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Phillips SM: Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to metabolic advantage. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2006, 31: 647-654. 10.1139/h06-035.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Phillips SM, Moore DR, Tang JE: A critical examination of dietary protein requirements, benefits, and excesses in athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007, 17 (Suppl): S58-S76.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Slater G, Phillips SM: Nutrition guidelines for strength sports: sprinting, weightlifting, throwing events, and bodybuilding. J Sports Sci. 2011, 29: S67-S77. 10.1080/02640414.2011.574722.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Tipton KD, Wolfe RR: Protein and amino acids for athletes. J Sports Sci. 2004, 22: 65-79. 10.1080/0264041031000140554.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Phillips SM, Van Loon LJ: Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to optimum adaptation. J Sports Sci. 2011, 29 (Suppl 1): S29-S38.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Mettler S, Mitchell N, Tipton KD: Increased protein intake reduces lean body mass loss during weight loss in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010, 42: 326-337.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Millward DJ: Macronutrient intakes as determinants of dietary protein and amino acid adequacy. J Nutr. 2004, 134: 1588S-1596S.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Stiegler P, Cunliffe A: The role of diet and exercise for the maintenance of fat-free mass and resting metabolic rate during weight loss. Sports Med. 2006, 36: 239-262. 10.2165/00007256-200636030-00005.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Walberg JL, Leidy MK, Sturgill DJ, Hinkle DE, Ritchey SJ, Sebolt DR: Macronutrient content of a hypoenergy diet affects nitrogen retention and muscle function in weight lifters. Int J Sports Med. 1988, 9: 261-266. 10.1055/s-2007-1025018.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Helms ER, Zinn C, Rowlands DS, Brown SR: A systematic review of dietary protein during caloric restriction in resistance trained lean athletes: a case for higher intakes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2013, Epub ahead of print
Google Scholar
Elia M, Stubbs RJ, Henry CJ: Differences in fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism between lean and obese subjects undergoing total starvation. Obes Res. 1999, 7: 597-604. 10.1002/j.1550-8528.1999.tb00720.x.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Phillips SM: Protein requirements and supplementation in strength sports. Nutrition. 2004, 20: 689-695. 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.009.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Tarnopolsky MA: Building muscle: nutrition to maximize bulk and strength adaptations to resistance exercise training. Eur J Sport Sci. 2008, 8: 67-76. 10.1080/17461390801919128.
Article Google Scholar
Tipton KD: Protein for adaptations to exercise training. Eur J Sport Sci. 2008, 8: 107-118. 10.1080/17461390801919102.
Article Google Scholar
Wilson J, Wilson GJ: Contemporary issues in protein requirements and consumption for resistance trained athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2006, 3: 7-27. 10.1186/1550-2783-3-1-7.
PubMed Central PubMed Article Google Scholar
Celejowa I, Homa M: Food intake, nitrogen and energy balance in Polish weight lifters, during a training camp. Nutr Metab. 1970, 12: 259-274. 10.1159/000175300.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Pasiakos SM, Cao JJ, Margolis LM, Sauter ER, Whigham LD, McClung JP, Rood JC, Carbone JW, Combs GF, Young AJ: Effects of high-protein diets on fat-free mass and muscle protein synthesis following weight loss: a randomized controlled trial. FASEB J. 2013, 27: 3837-3847. 10.1096/fj.13-230227.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Leveritt M, Abernethy PJ: Effects of carbohydrate restriction on strength performance. J Strength Cond Res. 1999, 13: 52-57.
Google Scholar
Haff GG, Koch AJ, Potteiger JA, Kuphal KE, Magee LM, Green SB, Jakicic JJ: Carbohydrate supplementation attenuates muscle glycogen loss during acute bouts of resistance exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2000, 10: 326-339.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
MacDougall JD, Ray S, Sale DG, McCartney N, Lee P, Garner S: Muscle substrate utilization and lactate production. Can J Appl Physiol. 1999, 24: 209-215. 10.1139/h99-017.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Layman DK, Boileau RA, Erickson DJ, Painter JE, Shiue H, Sather C, Christou DD: A reduced ratio of dietary carbohydrate to protein improves body composition and blood lipid profiles during weight loss in adult women. J Nutr. 2003, 133: 411-417.

CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Layman DK, Baum JI: Dietary protein impact on glycemic control during weight loss. J Nutr. 2004, 134: 968S-973S.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Halton TL, Hu FB: The effects of high protein diets on thermogenesis, satiety and weight loss: a critical review. J Am Coll Nutr. 2004, 23: 373-385. 10.1080/07315724.2004.10719381.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Veldhorst M, Smeets A, Soenen S, Hochstenbach-Waelen A, Hursel R, Diepvens K, Lejeune M, Luscombe-Marsh N, Westerterp-Plantenga M: Protein-induced satiety: effects and mechanisms of different proteins. Physiol Behav. 2008, 94: 300-307. 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.01.003.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Westerterp-Plantenga MS: Protein intake and energy balance. Regul Pept. 2008, 149: 67-69. 10.1016/j.regpep.2007.08.026.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Smeets AJ, Soenen S, Luscombe-Marsh ND, Ueland O, Westerterp-Plantenga MS: Energy expenditure, satiety, and plasma ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine concentrations following a single high-protein lunch. J Nutr. 2008, 138: 698-702.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cook CM, Haub MD: Low-carbohydrate diets and performance. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2007, 6: 225-229.
PubMed Google Scholar
Volek JS, Kraemer WJ, Bush JA, Incledon T, Boetes M: Testosterone and cortisol in relationship to dietary nutrients and resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1997, 82: 49-54. 10.1063/1.365847.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Sallinen J, Pakarinen A, Ahtiainen J, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Häkkinen K: Relationship between diet and serum anabolic hormone responses to heavy-resistance exercise in men. Int J Sports Med. 2004, 25: 627-633. 10.1055/s-2004-815818.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hämäläinen EK, Adlercreutz H, Puska P, Pietinen P: Decrease of serum total and free testosterone during a low-fat high-fibre diet. J Steroid Biochem. 1983, 18: 369-370. 10.1016/0022-4731(83)90117-6.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Dorgan JF, Judd JT, Longcope C, Brown C, Schatzkin A, Clevidence BA, Campbell WS, Nair PP, Franz C, Kahle L, Taylor PR: Effects of dietary fat and fiber on plasma and urine androgens and estrogens in men: a controlled feeding study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996, 64: 850-855.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hämäläinen EK, Adlercreutz H, Puska P, Pietinen P: Diet and serum sex hormones in healthy men. J Steroid Biochem. 1984, 20: 459-464. 10.1016/0022-4731(84)90254-1.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Suryanarayana BV, Kent JR, Meister L, Parlow AF: Pituitary-gonadal axis during prolonged total starvation in obese men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1969, 22: 767-770.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Rossow LM, Fukuda DH, Fahs CA, Loenneke JP, Stout JR: Natural bodybuilding competition preparation and recovery: a 12-month case study. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013, 8: 582-592.
PubMed Google Scholar
Loucks AB, Verdun M, Heath EM: Low energy availability, not stress of exercise, alters LH pulsatility in exercising women. J Appl Physiol. 1998, 84: 37-46.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Bird SP: Strength nutrition: maximizing your anabolic potential. Strength Cond J. 2010, 32: 80-86. 10.1519/SSC.0b013e3181d5284e.
Article Google Scholar
Shephard RJ: Electrolyte manipulation in female body-builders. Br J Sports Med. 1994, 28: 60-61.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Too D, Wakayama EJ, Locati LL, Landwer GE: Effect of a precompetition bodybuilding diet and training regimen on body composition and blood chemistry. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1998, 38: 245-252.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Sawyer JC, Wood RJ, Davidson PW, Collins SM, Matthews TD, Gregory SM, Paolone VJ: Effects of a short-term carbohydrate-restricted diet on strength and power performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2013, 27: 2255-2262. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31827da314.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Soenen S, Bonomi AG, Lemmens SGT, Scholte J, Thijssen MAMA, van Berkum F, Westerterp-Plantenga MS: Relatively high-protein or ‘low-carb’ energy-restricted diets for body weight loss and body weight maintenance?. Physiol Behav. 2012, 107: 374-380. 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.08.004.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Paoli A, Grimaldi K, D'Agostino D, Cenci L, Moro T, Bianco A, Palma A: Ketogenic diet does not affect strength performance in elite artistic gymnasts. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2012, 9: 34-10.1186/1550-2783-9-34.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Essen-Gustavsson B, Tesch PA: Glycogen and triglyceride utilization in relation to muscle metabolic characteristics in men performing heavy-resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1990, 61: 5-10. 10.1007/BF00236686.
CAS Article Google Scholar
Goedecke JH, Gibson ASC, Grobler L, Collins M, Noakes TD, Lambert EV: Determinants of the variability in respiratory exchange ratio at rest and during exercise in trained athletes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2000, 279: E1325-E1334.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cornier MA, Donahoo WT, Pereira R, Gurevich I, Westergren R, Enerback S, Eckel PJ, Goalstone ML, Hill JO, Eckel RH, Draznin B: Insulin sensitivity determines the effectiveness of dietary macronutrient composition on weight loss in obese women. Obes Res. 2005, 13: 703-709. 10.1038/oby.2005.79.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Pendergast DR, Leddy JJ, Venkatraman JT: A perspective on fat intake in athletes. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000, 19: 345-350. 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718930.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Turocy PS, DePalma BF, Horswill CA, Laquale KM, Martin TJ, Perry AC, Somova MJ, Utter AC: National athletic trainers' association position statement: safe weight loss and maintenance practices in sport and exercise. J Athl Train. 2011, 46: 322-336.
PubMed Central PubMed Google Scholar
Ivy JL, Katz AL, Cutler CL, Sherman WM, Coyle EF: Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. J Appl Physiol. 1988, 64: 1480-1485.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Jentjens R, Jeukendrup A: Determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery. Sports Med. 2003, 33: 117-144. 10.2165/00007256-200333020-00004.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Robergs RA, Pearson DR, Costill DL, Fink WJ, Pascoe DD, Benedict MA, Lambert CP, Zachweija JJ: Muscle glycogenolysis during differing intensities of weight-resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1991, 70: 1700-1706.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Roy BD, Tarnopolsky MA: Influence of differing macronutrient intakes on muscle glycogen resynthesis after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1998, 84: 890-896.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Fujita S, Dreyer HC, Drummond MJ, Glynn EL, Volpi E, Rasmussen BB: Essential amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion before resistance exercise does not enhance postexercise muscle protein synthesis. J Appl Physiol. 2009, 106: 1730-1739. 10.1152/japplphysiol.90395.2008.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Baty JJ, Hwang H, Ding Z, Bernard JR, Wang B, Kwon B, Ivy JL: The effect of a carbohydrate and protein supplement on resistance exercise performance, hormonal response, and muscle damage. J Strength Cond Res. 2007, 21: 321-329.
PubMed Google Scholar
Tipton KD, Elliott TA, Cree MG, Aarsland AA, Sanford AP, Wolfe RR: Stimulation of net muscle protein synthesis by whey protein ingestion before and after exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007, 292: E71-E76.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Bird SP, Tarpenning KM, Marino FE: Liquid carbohydrate/essential amino acid ingestion during a short-term bout of resistance exercise suppresses myofibrillar protein degradation. Metabolism. 2006, 55: 570-577. 10.1016/j.metabol.2005.11.011.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Levenhagen DK, Gresham JD, Carlson MG, Maron DJ, Borel MJ, Flakoll PJ: Postexercise nutrient intake timing in humans is critical to recovery of leg glucose and protein homeostasis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001, 280: E982-E993.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Tipton KD, Rasmussen BB, Miller SL, Wolf SE, Owens-Stovall SK, Petrini BE, Wolfe RR: Timing of amino acid-carbohydrate ingestion alters anabolic response of muscle to resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001, 281: E197-E206.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cribb PJ, Hayes A: Effects of supplement timing and resistance exercise on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006, 38: 1918-1925. 10.1249/01.mss.0000233790.08788.3e.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Esmarck B, Andersen JL, Olsen S, Richter EA, Mizuno M, Kjaer M: Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans. J Physiol. 2001, 535: 301-311. 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.00301.x.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Burk A, Timpmann S, Medijainen L, Vahi M, Oopik V: Time-divided ingestion pattern of casein-based protein supplement stimulates an increase in fat-free body mass during resistance training in young untrained men. Nutr Res. 2009, 29: 405-413. 10.1016/j.nutres.2009.03.008.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Tranchina CP, Rashti SL, Kang J, Faigenbaum AD: Effect of protein-supplement timing on strength, power, and body-composition changes in resistance-trained men. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2009, 19: 172-185.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Wycherley TP, Noakes M, Clifton PM, Cleanthous X, Keogh JB, Brinkworth GD: Timing of protein ingestion relative to resistance exercise training does not influence body composition, energy expenditure, glycaemic control or cardiometabolic risk factors in a hypocaloric, high protein diet in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2010, 12: 1097-1105. 10.1111/j.1463-1326.2010.01307.x.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Weisgarber KD, Candow DG, Vogt ES: Whey protein before and during resistance exercise has no effect on muscle mass and strength in untrained young adults. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012, 22: 463-469.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Willoughby DS, Stout JR, Wilborn CD: Effects of resistance training and protein plus amino acid supplementation on muscle anabolism, mass, and strength. Amino Acids. 2007, 32: 467-477. 10.1007/s00726-006-0398-7.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hulmi JJ, Kovanen V, Selanne H, Kraemer WJ, Hakkinen K, Mero AA: Acute and long-term effects of resistance exercise with or without protein ingestion on muscle hypertrophy and gene expression. Amino Acids. 2009, 37: 297-308. 10.1007/s00726-008-0150-6.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Verdijk LB, Jonkers RA, Gleeson BG, Beelen M, Meijer K, Savelberg HH, Wodzig WK, Dendale P, van Loon LJ: Protein supplementation before and after exercise does not further augment skeletal muscle hypertrophy after resistance training in elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009, 89: 608-616. 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26626.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Erskine RM, Fletcher G, Hanson B, Folland JP: Whey protein does not enhance the adaptations to elbow flexor resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012, 44: 1791-1800. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318256c48d.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Burd NA, West DW, Moore DR, Atherton PJ, Staples AW, Prior T, Tang JE, Rennie MJ, Baker SK, Phillips SM: Enhanced amino acid sensitivity of myofibrillar protein synthesis persists for up to 24 h after resistance exercise in young men. J Nutr. 2011, 141: 568-573. 10.3945/jn.110.135038.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Deldicque L, De Bock K, Maris M, Ramaekers M, Nielens H, Francaux M, Hespel P: Increased p70s6k phosphorylation during intake of a protein-carbohydrate drink following resistance exercise in the fasted state. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010, 108: 791-800. 10.1007/s00421-009-1289-x.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Moore DR, Robinson MJ, Fry JL, Tang JE, Glover EI, Wilkinson SB, Prior T, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM: Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009, 89: 161-168.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Yang Y, Breen L, Burd NA, Hector AJ, Churchward-Venne TA, Josse AR, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM: Resistance exercise enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis with graded intakes of whey protein in older men. Br J Nutr. 2012, 108: 1-9. 10.1017/S0007114511005204.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Hamer HM, Wall BT, Kiskini A, de Lange A, Groen BB, Bakker JA, Gijsen AP, Verdijk LB, van Loon LJ: Carbohydrate co-ingestion with protein does not further augment post-prandial muscle protein accretion in older men. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2013, 10: 15-10.1186/1743-7075-10-15.
CAS Article Google Scholar
Staples AW, Burd NA, West DW, Currie KD, Atherton PJ, Moore DR, Rennie MJ, Macdonald MJ, Baker SK, Phillips SM: Carbohydrate does not augment exercise-induced protein accretion versus protein alone. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011, 43: 1154-1161. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31820751cb.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Greenhaff PL, Karagounis LG, Peirce N, Simpson EJ, Hazell M, Layfield R, Wackerhage H, Smith K, Atherton P, Selby A, Rennie MJ: Disassociation between the effects of amino acids and insulin on signaling, ubiquitin ligases, and protein turnover in human muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2008, 295: E595-E604. 10.1152/ajpendo.90411.2008.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Koopman R, Beelen M, Stellingwerff T, Pennings B, Saris WH, Kies AK, Kuipers H, van Loon LJ: Coingestion of carbohydrate with protein does not further augment postexercise muscle protein synthesis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007, 293: E833-E842. 10.1152/ajpendo.00135.2007.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Kerksick C, Harvey T, Stout J, Campbell B, Wilborn C, Kreider R, Kalman D, Ziegenfuss T, Lopez H, Landis J, Ivy JL, Antonio J: International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2008, 5: 17-10.1186/1550-2783-5-17.
PubMed Central PubMed Article CAS Google Scholar
Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ: Nutrient timing revisited: is there a post-exercise anabolic window?. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2013, 10: 5-10.1186/1550-2783-10-5.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Taylor MA, Garrow JS: Compared with nibbling, neither gorging nor a morning fast affect short-term energy balance in obese patients in a chamber calorimeter. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001, 25: 519-528. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801572.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
de Venne WP V-v, Westerterp KR: Influence of the feeding frequency on nutrient utilization in man: consequences for energy metabolism. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1991, 45: 161-169.
Google Scholar
Farshchi HR, Taylor MA, Macdonald IA: Decreased thermic effect of food after an irregular compared with a regular meal pattern in healthy lean women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004, 28: 653-660. 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802616.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Farshchi HR, Taylor MA, Macdonald IA: Regular meal frequency creates more appropriate insulin sensitivity and lipid profiles compared with irregular meal frequency in healthy lean women. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2004, 58: 1071-1077. 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601935.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Harvie MN, Pegington M, Mattson MP, Frystyk J, Dillon B, Evans G, Cuzick J, Jebb SA, Martin B, Cutler RG, Son TG, Maudsley S, Carlson OD, Egan JM, Flyvbjerg A, Howell A: The effects of intermittent or continuous energy restriction on weight loss and metabolic disease risk markers: a randomized trial in young overweight women. Int J Obes. 2011, 35: 714-727. 10.1038/ijo.2010.171.
CAS Article Google Scholar
Soeters MR, Lammers NM, Dubbelhuis PF, Ackermans M, Jonkers-Schuitema CF, Fliers E, Sauerwein HP, Aerts JM, Serlie MJ: Intermittent fasting does not affect whole-body glucose, lipid, or protein metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009, 90: 1244-1251. 10.3945/ajcn.2008.27327.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Arnal MA, Mosoni L, Boirie Y, Houlier ML, Morin L, Verdier E, Ritz P, Antoine JM, Prugnaud J, Beaufrere B, Mirand PP: Protein feeding pattern does not affect protein retention in young women. J Nutr. 2000, 130: 1700-1704.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Arnal MA, Mosoni L, Boirie Y, Houlier ML, Morin L, Verdier E, Ritz P, Antoine JM, Prugnaud J, Beaufrere B, Mirand PP: Protein pulse feeding improves protein retention in elderly women. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999, 69: 1202-1208.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
La Bounty PM, Campbell BI, Wilson J, Galvan E, Berardi J, Kleiner SM, Kreider RB, Stout JR, Ziegenfuss T, Spano M, Smith A, Antonio J: International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: meal frequency. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2011, 8: 4-10.1186/1550-2783-8-4.
PubMed Central PubMed Article Google Scholar
Varady KA: Intermittent versus daily calorie restriction: which diet regimen is more effective for weight loss?. Obes Rev. 2011, 12: e593-e601. 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00873.x.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Bosy-Westphal A, Later W, Hitze B, Sato T, Kossel E, Gluer CC, Heller M, Muller MJ: Accuracy of bioelectrical impedance consumer devices for measurement of body composition in comparison to whole body magnetic resonance imaging and dual X-ray absorptiometry. Obes Facts. 2008, 1: 319-324.
PubMed Google Scholar
Pateyjohns IR, Brinkworth GD, Buckley JD, Noakes M, Clifton PM: Comparison of three bioelectrical impedance methods with DXA in overweight and obese men. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006, 14: 2064-2070. 10.1038/oby.2006.241.
Article Google Scholar
Neovius M, Hemmingsson E, Freyschuss B, Udden J: Bioelectrical impedance underestimates total and truncal fatness in abdominally obese women. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006, 14: 1731-1738. 10.1038/oby.2006.199.
Article Google Scholar
Stote KS, Baer DJ, Spears K, Paul DR, Harris GK, Rumpler WV, Strycula P, Najjar SS, Ferrucci L, Ingram DK, Longo DL, Mattson MP: A controlled trial of reduced meal frequency without caloric restriction in healthy, normal-weight, middle-aged adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007, 85: 981-988.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Iwao S, Mori K, Sato Y: Effects of meal frequency on body composition during weight control in boxers. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1996, 6: 265-272.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Benardot D, Martin DE, Thompson WR, Roman SB: Between-meal energy intake effects on body composition, performance, and totol caloric consumption in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005, 37: S339-
Google Scholar
Norton LE, Wilson GJ: Optimal protein intake to maximize muscle protein synthesis: examinations of optimal meal protein intake. Agro Food Industry Hi-Tech. 2009, 20: 54-57.
CAS Google Scholar
Bohe J, Low JF, Wolfe RR, Rennie MJ: Latency and duration of stimulation of human muscle protein synthesis during continuous infusion of amino acids. J Physiol. 2001, 532: 575-579. 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.0575f.x.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Atherton PJ, Etheridge T, Watt PW, Wilkinson D, Selby A, Rankin D, Smith K, Rennie MJ: Muscle full effect after oral protein: time-dependent concordance and discordance between human muscle protein synthesis and mTORC1 signaling. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010, 92: 1080-1088. 10.3945/ajcn.2010.29819.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Munsters MJ, Saris WH: Effects of meal frequency on metabolic profiles and substrate partitioning in lean healthy males. PLoS One. 2012, 7: e38632-10.1371/journal.pone.0038632.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Holmstrup M, Owens CM, Fairchild TJ, Kanaley JA: Effect of meal freqnency on glucose and insulin excursions over the course of a day. Eur e-J Clin Nutr Metab. 2010, 5: 277-280. 10.1016/j.eclnm.2010.10.001.
Article Google Scholar
Leidy HJ, Armstrong CL, Tang M, Mattes RD, Campbell WW: The influence of higher protein intake and greater eating frequency on appetite control in overweight and obese men. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010, 18: 1725-1732. 10.1038/oby.2010.45.
CAS Article Google Scholar
Arciero PJ, Ormsbee MJ, Gentile CL, Nindl BC, Brestoff JR, Ruby M: Increased protein intake and meal frequency reduces abdominal fat during energy balance and energy deficit. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2013, 21: 1357-1366. 10.1002/oby.20296.
CAS Article Google Scholar
Adechian S, Balage M, Remond D, Migne C, Quignard-Boulange A, Marset-Baglieri A, Rousset S, Boirie Y, Gaudichon C, Dardevet D, Mosoni L: Protein feeding pattern, casein feeding or milk soluble protein feeding did not change the evolution of body composition during a short-term weight loss program. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2012, 303: E973-E982. 10.1152/ajpendo.00285.2012.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Moore DR, Areta J, Coffey VG, Stellingwerff T, Phillips SM, Burke LM, Cleroux M, Godin JP, Hawley JA: Daytime pattern of post-exercise protein intake affects whole-body protein turnover in resistance-trained males. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2012, 9: 91-10.1186/1743-7075-9-91.
CAS Article Google Scholar
Areta JL, Burke LM, Ross ML, Camera DM, West DW, Broad EM, Jeacocke NA, Moore DR, Stellingwerff T, Phillips SM, Hawley JA, Coffey VG: Timing and distribution of protein ingestion during prolonged recovery from resistance exercise alters myofibrillar protein synthesis. J Physiol. 2013, 591: 2319-2331.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
OCB/NANBF/IFPA Drug Testing Guidelines. [http://www.thenaturalmusclenetwork.com/OCB/forms/DrugTestingGuidelines.pdf]
Campbell B, Kreider RB, Ziegenfuss T, La Bounty P, Roberts M, Burke D, Landis J, Lopez H, Antonio J: International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2007, 4: 8-10.1186/1550-2783-4-8.
PubMed Central PubMed Article Google Scholar
Buford TW, Kreider RB, Stout JR, Greenwood M, Campbell B, Spano M, Ziegenfuss T, Lopez H, Landis J, Antonio J: International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: creatine supplementation and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2007, 4: 6-10.1186/1550-2783-4-6.
PubMed Central PubMed Article Google Scholar
Kim H, Kim C, Carpentier A, Poortmans J: Studies on the safety of creatine supplementation. Amino Acids. 2011, 40: 1409-1418. 10.1007/s00726-011-0878-2.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Becque MD, Lochmann JD, Melrose DR: Effects of oral creatine supplementation on muscular strength and body composition. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000, 32: 654-658. 10.1097/00005768-200003000-00016.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Volek JS, Duncan ND, Mazzetti SA, Staron RS, Putukian M, Gomez AL, Pearson DR, Fink WJ, Kraemer WJ: Performance and muscle fiber adaptations to creatine supplementation and heavy resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999, 31: 1147-1156. 10.1097/00005768-199908000-00011.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Willoughby DS, Rosene J: Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on myosin heavy chain expression. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001, 33: 1674-1681. 10.1097/00005768-200110000-00010.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Vandenberghe K, Goris M, Van Hecke P, Van Leemputte M, Vangerven L, Hespel P: Long-term creatine intake is beneficial to muscle performance during resistance training. J Appl Physiol. 1997, 83: 2055-2063.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Stone MH, Sanborn K, Smith LL, O'Bryant HS, Hoke T, Utter AC, Johnson RL, Boros R, Hruby J, Pierce KC, Stone ME, Garner B: Effects of in-season (5 weeks) creatine and pyruvate supplementation on anaerobic performance and body composition in American football players. Int J Sport Nutr. 1999, 9: 146-165.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Persky AM, Brazeau GA: Clinical pharmacology of the dietary supplement creatine monohydrate. Pharmacol Rev. 2001, 53: 161-176.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hultman E, Soderlund K, Timmons JA, Cederblad G, Greenhaff PL: Muscle creatine loading in men. J Appl Physiol. 1996, 81: 232-237.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Tallon MJ, Child R: Kre-alkalyn suppplementation has no beneficial effect on creatine-to-creatinine conversion rates. Book Kre-alkalyn suppplementation has no beneficial effect on creatine-to-creatinine conversion rates. 2007, City
Google Scholar
Child RT MJ: Creatine ethyl ester rapidly degrades to creatinine in stomach acid. Book Creatine ethyl ester rapidly degrades to creatinine in stomach acid. 2007
Google Scholar
Spillane M, Schoch R, Cooke M, Harvey T, Greenwood M, Kreider R, Willoughby DS: The effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with heavy resistance training on body composition, muscle performance, and serum and muscle creatine levels. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009, 6: 6-10.1186/1550-2783-6-6.
PubMed Central PubMed Article CAS Google Scholar
Jagim AR, Oliver JM, Sanchez A, Galvan E, Fluckey J, Riechman S, Greenwood M, Kelly K, Meininger C, Rasmussen C, Kreider RB: A buffered form of creatine does not promote greater changes in muscle creatine content, body composition, or training adaptations than creatine monohydrate. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2012, 9: 43-10.1186/1550-2783-9-43.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Artioli GG, Gualano B, Smith A, Stout J, Lancha AH: Role of beta-alanine supplementation on muscle carnosine and exercise performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010, 42: 1162-1173.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Harris RC, Tallon MJ, Dunnett M, Boobis L, Coakley J, Kim HJ, Fallowfield JL, Hill CA, Sale C, Wise JA: The absorption of orally supplied beta-alanine and its effect on muscle carnosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis. Amino Acids. 2006, 30: 279-289. 10.1007/s00726-006-0299-9.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Derave W, Ozdemir MS, Harris RC, Pottier A, Reyngoudt H, Koppo K, Wise JA, Achten E: beta-Alanine supplementation augments muscle carnosine content and attenuates fatigue during repeated isokinetic contraction bouts in trained sprinters. J Appl Physiol. 2007, 103: 1736-1743. 10.1152/japplphysiol.00397.2007.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hill CA, Harris RC, Kim HJ, Harris BD, Sale C, Boobis LH, Kim CK, Wise JA: Influence of beta-alanine supplementation on skeletal muscle carnosine concentrations and high intensity cycling capacity. Amino Acids. 2007, 32: 225-233. 10.1007/s00726-006-0364-4.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Van Thienen R, Van Proeyen K, Vanden Eynde P, Puype J, Lefere T, Hespel P: Beta-alanine improves sprint performance in endurance cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009, 41: 898-903. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31818db708.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Sale C, Saunders B, Hudson S, Wise JA, Harris RC, Sunderland CD: Effect of beta-alanine plus sodium bicarbonate on high-intensity cycling capacity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011, 43: 1972-1978.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Smith AE, Walter AA, Graef JL, Kendall KL, Moon JR, Lockwood CM, Fukuda DH, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JR: Effects of beta-alanine supplementation and high-intensity interval training on endurance performance and body composition in men; a double-blind trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009, 6: 5-10.1186/1550-2783-6-5.
PubMed Central PubMed Article CAS Google Scholar
Stout JR, Cramer JT, Zoeller RF, Torok D, Costa P, Hoffman JR, Harris RC, O'Kroy J: Effects of beta-alanine supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue and ventilatory threshold in women. Amino Acids. 2007, 32: 381-386. 10.1007/s00726-006-0474-z.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hoffman J, Ratamess NA, Ross R, Kang J, Magrelli J, Neese K, Faigenbaum AD, Wise JA: Beta-alanine and the hormonal response to exercise. Int J Sports Med. 2008, 29: 952-958. 10.1055/s-2008-1038678.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Faigenbaum AD, Ross R, Kang J, Stout JR, Wise JA: Short-duration beta-alanine supplementation increases training volume and reduces subjective feelings of fatigue in college football players. Nutr Res. 2008, 28: 31-35. 10.1016/j.nutres.2007.11.004.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Zoeller RF, Stout JR, O'Kroy JA, Torok DJ, Mielke M: Effects of 28 days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on aerobic power, ventilatory and lactate thresholds, and time to exhaustion. Amino Acids. 2007, 33: 505-510. 10.1007/s00726-006-0399-6.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hoffman J, Ratamess N, Kang J, Mangine G, Faigenbaum A, Stout J: Effect of creatine and beta-alanine supplementation on performance and endocrine responses in strength/power athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006, 16: 430-446.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Kendrick IP, Harris RC, Kim HJ, Kim CK, Dang VH, Lam TQ, Bui TT, Smith M, Wise JA: The effects of 10 weeks of resistance training combined with beta-alanine supplementation on whole body strength, force production, muscular endurance and body composition. Amino Acids. 2008, 34: 547-554. 10.1007/s00726-007-0008-3.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Sweeney KM, Wright GA, Glenn Brice A, Doberstein ST: The effect of beta-alanine supplementation on power performance during repeated sprint activity. J Strength Cond Res. 2010, 24: 79-87. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c63bd5.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hobson RM, Saunders B, Ball G, Harris RC, Sale C: Effects of beta-alanine supplementation on exercise performance: a meta-analysis. Amino Acids. 2012, 43: 25-37. 10.1007/s00726-011-1200-z.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Lu P, Xu W, Sturman JA: Dietary beta-alanine results in taurine depletion and cerebellar damage in adult cats. J Neurosci Res. 1996, 43: 112-119. 10.1002/jnr.490430115.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Smith HJ, Mukerji P, Tisdale MJ: Attenuation of proteasome-induced proteolysis in skeletal muscle by {beta}-hydroxy-{beta}-methylbutyrate in cancer-induced muscle loss. Cancer Res. 2005, 65: 277-283.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Eley HL, Russell ST, Baxter JH, Mukerji P, Tisdale MJ: Signaling pathways initiated by beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate to attenuate the depression of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle in response to cachectic stimuli. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007, 293: E923-E931. 10.1152/ajpendo.00314.2007.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Rathmacher JA, Nissen S, Panton L, Clark RH, Eubanks May P, Barber AE, D'Olimpio J, Abumrad NN: Supplementation with a combination of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB), arginine, and glutamine is safe and could improve hematological parameters. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2004, 28: 65-75. 10.1177/014860710402800265.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Nissen S, Sharp RL, Panton L, Vukovich M, Trappe S, Fuller JC: beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) supplementation in humans is safe and may decrease cardiovascular risk factors. J Nutr. 2000, 130: 1937-1945.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Gallagher PM, Carrithers JA, Godard MP, Schulze KE, Trappe SW: Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate ingestion, part II: effects on hematology, hepatic and renal function. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000, 32: 2116-2119. 10.1097/00005768-200012000-00023.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Fitschen PJ, Wilson GJ, Wilson JM, Wilund KR: Efficacy of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate supplementation in elderly and clinical populations. Nutrition. 2013, 29: 29-36. 10.1016/j.nut.2012.05.005.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Wilson GJ, Wilson JM, Manninen AH: Effects of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) on exercise performance and body composition across varying levels of age, sex, and training experience: a review. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2008, 5: 1-10.1186/1743-7075-5-1.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Wilson J, Fitschen P, Campbell B, Wilson G, Zanchi N, Taylor L, Wilborn C, Kalman D, Stout J, Hoffman J, Ziegenfuss T, Lopez H, Kreider R, Smith-Ryan A, Antonio J: International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB). J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2013, 10: 6-10.1186/1550-2783-10-6.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Shimomura Y, Yamamoto Y, Bajotto G, Sato J, Murakami T, Shimomura N, Kobayashi H, Mawatari K: Nutraceutical effects of branched-chain amino acids on skeletal muscle. J Nutr. 2006, 136: 529S-532S.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Garlick PJ, Grant I: Amino acid infusion increases the sensitivity of muscle protein synthesis in vivo to insulin. Effect of branched-chain amino acids. Biochem J. 1988, 254: 579-584.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Balage M, Dardevet D: Long-term effects of leucine supplementation on body composition. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010, 13: 265-270. 10.1097/MCO.0b013e328336f6b8.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Pencharz PB, Elango R, Ball RO: Determination of the tolerable upper intake level of leucine in adult men. J Nutr. 2012, 142: 2220S-2224S. 10.3945/jn.112.160259.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Biolo G, Tipton KD, Klein S, Wolfe RR: An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. Am J Physiol. 1997, 273: E122-E129.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Tipton KD, Ferrando AA, Phillips SM, Doyle D, Wolfe RR: Postexercise net protein synthesis in human muscle from orally administered amino acids. Am J Physiol. 1999, 276: E628-E634.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Louard RJ, Barrett EJ, Gelfand RA: Effect of infused branched-chain amino acids on muscle and whole-body amino acid metabolism in man. Clin Sci. 1990, 79: 457-466.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Borsheim E, Tipton KD, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR: Essential amino acids and muscle protein recovery from resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002, 283: E648-E657.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Stoppani J, Scheett T, Pena J, Rudolph C, Charlebois D: Consuming a supplement containing branched-chain amino acids during a resistance-traning program increases lean mass, muscle strength, and fat loss. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009, 6: P1-10.1186/1550-2783-6-S1-P1.
PubMed Central Article Google Scholar
Wilson GJ, Layman DK, Moulton CJ, Norton LE, Anthony TG, Proud CG, Rupassara SI, Garlick PJ: Leucine or carbohydrate supplementation reduces AMPK and eEF2 phosphorylation and extends postprandial muscle protein synthesis in rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2011, 301: E1236-E1242. 10.1152/ajpendo.00242.2011.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Suryawan A, Hawes JW, Harris RA, Shimomura Y, Jenkins AE, Hutson SM: A molecular model of human branched-chain amino acid metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998, 68: 72-81.

CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Fahs CA, Heffernan KS, Fernhall B: Hemodynamic and vascular response to resistance exercise with L-arginine. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009, 41: 773-779. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181909d9d.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Tang JE, Lysecki PJ, Manolakos JJ, MacDonald MJ, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM: Bolus arginine supplementation affects neither muscle blood flow nor muscle protein synthesis in young men at rest or after resistance exercise. J Nutr. 2011, 141: 195-200. 10.3945/jn.110.130138.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Volpi E, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Mittendorfer B, Wolfe RR: Essential amino acids are primarily responsible for the amino acid stimulation of muscle protein anabolism in healthy elderly adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003, 78: 250-258.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Alvares TS, Meirelles CM, Bhambhani YN, Paschoalin VM, Gomes PS: L-Arginine as a potential ergogenic aid in healthy subjects. Sports Med. 2011, 41: 233-248. 10.2165/11538590-000000000-00000.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Greer BK, Jones BT: Acute arginine supplementation fails to improve muscle endurance or affect blood pressure responses to resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2011, 25: 1789-1794. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e07569.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
McConell GK: Effects of L-arginine supplementation on exercise metabolism. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2007, 10: 46-51. 10.1097/MCO.0b013e32801162fa.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Shao A, Hathcock JN: Risk assessment for the amino acids taurine, L-glutamine and L-arginine. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2008, 50: 376-399. 10.1016/j.yrtph.2008.01.004.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Perez-Guisado J, Jakeman PM: Citrulline malate enhances athletic anaerobic performance and relieves muscle soreness. J Strength Cond Res. 2010, 24: 1215-1222. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181cb28e0.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Bendahan D, Mattei JP, Ghattas B, Confort-Gouny S, Le Guern ME, Cozzone PJ: Citrulline/malate promotes aerobic energy production in human exercising muscle. Br J Sports Med. 2002, 36: 282-289. 10.1136/bjsm.36.4.282.
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Sureda A, Cordova A, Ferrer MD, Perez G, Tur JA, Pons A: L-citrulline-malate influence over branched chain amino acid utilization during exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010, 110: 341-351. 10.1007/s00421-010-1509-4.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hickner RC, Tanner CJ, Evans CA, Clark PD, Haddock A, Fortune C, Geddis H, Waugh W, McCammon M: L-citrulline reduces time to exhaustion and insulin response to a graded exercise test. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006, 38: 660-666. 10.1249/01.mss.0000210197.02576.da.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Gleeson M: Dosing and efficacy of glutamine supplementation in human exercise and sport training. J Nutr. 2008, 138: 2045S-2049S.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Antonio J, Sanders MS, Kalman D, Woodgate D, Street C: The effects of high-dose glutamine ingestion on weightlifting performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2002, 16: 157-160.
PubMed Google Scholar
Haub MD, Potteiger JA, Nau KL, Webster MJ, Zebas CJ: Acute L-glutamine ingestion does not improve maximal effort exercise. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1998, 38: 240-244.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Colker CM, Swain MA, Fabrucini B, Shi Q, Kalman DS: Effects of supplemental protein on body composition and muscular strength in healthy athletic male adults. Curr Ther Res. 2000, 61: 19-28. 10.1016/S0011-393X(00)88492-1.
CAS Article Google Scholar
Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, Burke DG, Davison KS, Smith-Palmer T: Effect of glutamine supplementation combined with resistance training in young adults. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001, 86: 142-149. 10.1007/s00421-001-0523-y.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Camilleri M, Madsen K, Spiller R, Van Meerveld BG, Verne GN: Intestinal barrier function in health and gastrointestinal disease. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2012, 24: 503-512. 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2012.01921.x.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Ivy JL, Kammer L, Ding Z, Wang B, Bernard JR, Liao YH, Hwang J: Improved cycling time-trial performance after ingestion of a caffeine energy drink. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2009, 19: 61-78.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
McNaughton LR, Lovell RJ, Siegler J, Midgley AW, Moore L, Bentley DJ: The effects of caffeine ingestion on time trial cycling performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2008, 3: 157-163.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Carr A, Dawson B, Schneiker K, Goodman C, Lay B: Effect of caffeine supplementation on repeated sprint running performance. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2008, 48: 472-478.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Glaister M, Howatson G, Abraham CS, Lockey RA, Goodwin JE, Foley P, McInnes G: Caffeine supplementation and multiple sprint running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008, 40: 1835-1840. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31817a8ad2.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Green JM, Wickwire PJ, McLester JR, Gendle S, Hudson G, Pritchett RC, Laurent CM: Effects of caffeine on repetitions to failure and ratings of perceived exertion during resistance training. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2007, 2: 250-259.
PubMed Google Scholar
Woolf K, Bidwell WK, Carlson AG: The effect of caffeine as an ergogenic aid in anaerobic exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008, 18: 412-429.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Duncan MJ, Oxford SW: The effect of caffeine ingestion on mood state and bench press performance to failure. J Strength Cond Res. 2011, 25: 178-185. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318201bddb.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Williams AD, Cribb PJ, Cooke MB, Hayes A: The effect of ephedra and caffeine on maximal strength and power in resistance-trained athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2008, 22: 464-470. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181660320.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Hendrix CR, Housh TJ, Mielke M, Zuniga JM, Camic CL, Johnson GO, Schmidt RJ, Housh DJ: Acute effects of a caffeine-containing supplement on bench press and leg extension strength and time to exhaustion during cycle ergometry. J Strength Cond Res. 2010, 24: 859-865. 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ae7976.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Nawrot P, Jordan S, Eastwood J, Rotstein J, Hugenholtz A, Feeley M: Effects of caffeine on human health. Food Addit Contam. 2003, 20: 1-30.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Tarnopolsky MA, Atkinson SA, MacDougall JD, Sale DG, Sutton JR: Physiological responses to caffeine during endurance running in habitual caffeine users. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989, 21: 418-424.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Bazzarre TL, Kleiner SM, Litchford MD: Nutrient intake, body fat, and lipid profiles of competitive male and female bodybuilders. J Am Coll Nutr. 1990, 9: 136-142. 10.1080/07315724.1990.10720362.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Kleiner SM, Bazzarre TL, Ainsworth BE: Nutritional status of nationally ranked elite bodybuilders. Int J Sport Nutr. 1994, 4: 54-69.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hickson JF, Johnson TE, Lee W, Sidor RJ: Nutrition and the precontest preparations of a male bodybuilder. J Am Diet Assoc. 1990, 90: 264-267.
PubMed Google Scholar
Andersen RE, Barlett SJ, Morgan GD, Brownell KD: Weight loss, psychological, and nutritional patterns in competitive male body builders. Int J Eat Disord. 1995, 18: 49-57. 10.1002/1098-108X(199507)18:1<49::AID-EAT2260180106>3.0.CO;2-C.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Balon TW, Horowitz JF, Fitzsimmons KM: Effects of carbohydrate loading and weight-lifting on muscle girth. Int J Sport Nutr. 1992, 2: 328-334.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Costill DL, Cote R, Fink W: Muscle water and electrolytes following varied levels of dehydration in man. J Appl Physiol. 1976, 40: 6-11.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Goldfield GS, Blouin AG, Woodside DB: Body image, binge eating, and bulimia nervosa in male bodybuilders. Can J Psychiatry. 2006, 51: 160-168.
PubMed Google Scholar
Mangweth B, Pope HG, Kemmler G, Ebenbichler C, Hausmann A, De Col C, Kreutner B, Kinzl J, Biebl W: Body image and psychopathology in male bodybuilders. Psychother Psychosom. 2001, 70: 38-43. 10.1159/000056223.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Baghurst T, Lirgg C: Characteristics of muscle dysmorphia in male football, weight training, and competitive natural and non-natural bodybuilding samples. Body Image. 2009, 6: 221-227. 10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.03.002.
PubMed Article Google Scholar
Pickett TC, Lewis RJ, Cash TF: Men, muscles, and body image: comparisons of competitive bodybuilders, weight trainers, and athletically active controls. Br J Sports Med. 2005, 39: 217-222. 10.1136/bjsm.2004.012013. discussion 217–222
PubMed Central CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Jankauskiene R, Kardelis K, Pajaujiene S: Muscle size satisfaction and predisposition for a health harmful practice in bodybuilders and recreational gymnasium users. Medicina (Kaunas). 2007, 43: 338-346.
Google Scholar
Walberg JL, Johnston CS: Menstrual function and eating behavior in female recreational weight lifters and competitive body builders. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991, 23: 30-36.
CAS PubMed Article Google Scholar
Sundgot-Borgen J, Garthe I: Elite athletes in aesthetic and Olympic weight-class sports and the challenge of body weight and body compositions. J Sports Sci. 2011, 29 (Suppl 1): S101-S114.
PubMed Article Google Scholar